B Reactor

Last updated

B Reactor
Hanford B Reactor.jpg
The face of B Reactor during construction.
USA Washington location map.svg
Red pog.svg
Usa edcp location map.svg
Red pog.svg
LocationAbout 5.3 miles (8.5 km) northeast of junction of State Route 24 and State Route 240 on the Hanford Site
Nearest city Richland, Washington
Coordinates 46°37′49″N119°38′50″W / 46.63028°N 119.64722°W / 46.63028; -119.64722
Area9.5 acres (3.8 ha)
Built7 June 1943 [1] to September 1944 [2]
Architect E.I. DuPont de Nemours & Company
NRHP reference No. 92000245
Significant dates
Added to NRHP3 April 1992
Designated NHL19 August 2008 [3]

The B Reactor at the Hanford Site, near Richland, Washington, was the first large-scale nuclear reactor ever built. The project was a key part of the Manhattan Project, the United States nuclear weapons development program during World War II. Its purpose was to convert natural (not isotopically enriched) uranium metal into plutonium-239 by neutron activation, as plutonium is simpler to chemically separate from spent fuel assemblies, for use in nuclear weapons, than it is to isotopically enrich uranium into weapon-grade material. The B reactor was fueled with metallic natural uranium, graphite moderated, and water-cooled. It has been designated a U.S. National Historic Landmark since 19 August 2008 [3] [4] and in July 2011 the National Park Service recommended that the B Reactor be included in the Manhattan Project National Historical Park commemorating the Manhattan Project. [5] Visitors can take a tour of the reactor by advance reservation. [6]

Contents

Design and construction

The reactor was designed and built by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company based on experimental designs tested by Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago, and tests from the X-10 Graphite Reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. It was designed to operate at 250 megawatts (thermal).

The purpose of the reactor was to breed plutonium from natural uranium metal. Enriching fissionable 235U from 238U, the dominant natural isotope, was extremely complex; plutonium's distinct chemistry made separation trivial by comparison. For example, the Y12 uranium enrichment plant in Tennessee required 14,700 tons of silver loaned by the Treasury Department for the windings in its calutrons, employed 22,000 people and consumed more electrical power than most states. Reactor B on the other hand needed only a few dozen employees and far fewer exotic materials required in much smaller quantities. The most important special material needed were the 1,200 tons of purified graphite for neutron moderation, and only enough electricity to run the cooling pumps. [7] [8]

The reactor has a footprint of 46 by 38  ft (14 by 12  m ) (about 1,750 sq ft (163 m2) and is 41 ft (12 m) tall, giving a volume of 71,500 cu ft (2,020 m3). The reactor core itself consists of a 36 ft-tall (11 m) graphite box measuring 28 by 36 ft (8.5 by 11.0 m) occupying a volume of 36,288 cu ft (1,027.6 m3) and weighing 1,200 short tons (1,100 t). It is penetrated horizontally through its entire length by 2,004 aluminum tubes containing fuel and vertically by channels housing the control rods. [4]

The core is surrounded by a thermal shield of cast iron 8 to 10 in (20 to 25 cm) thick weighing 1,000 short tons (910 t). Masonite and steel plates enclose the thermal shield on its top and sides, forming a biological shield for radiation protection. The bottom of the thermal shield was supported by a 23 ft-thick (7.0 m) concrete pad topped by cast-iron blocks. Based on the success of the first atomic pile, graphite was selected to moderate the nuclear reaction. This reaction was fueled by 200 short tons (180 t) of metallic uranium slugs approximately 25 mm (1 in) diameter, 70 mm (3 in) long (about as large as of a roll of quarters [4] ), sealed in aluminum cans, and loaded into the aluminum tubes. [4]

The reactor was water-cooled. Its coolant was pumped from the Hanford Reach of the Columbia River, through the aluminum tubes and around the uranium slugs at a rate of 75,000 US gal (280,000 L) per minute. The water was discharged into settling basins. Water was held in the basins to permit the decay of short-lived radioactive waste, the settling out of particulate matter gathered from the reactor, and for the water to cool to within 11 °F of the river's temperature. It was then discharged back into the Columbia River. [9]

Map of the Hanford site with the B/C reactor site shown at the upper left. Hanford Reach National Monument.png
Map of the Hanford site with the B/C reactor site shown at the upper left.

Operation

The B Reactor had its first nuclear chain reaction in September 1944, the D Reactor in December 1944 and the F Reactor in February 1945. The initial operation was halted by a problem identified as neutron absorption by the fission product Xe-135, first identified in a research paper of Chien-Shiung Wu that was shared with Fermi. [10] It was overcome by increasing the amount of uranium charged. The reactor produced plutonium-239 by irradiating uranium-238 with neutrons generated by the nuclear reaction. It was one of three reactors – along with the D and F reactors – built about six miles (10 km) apart on the south bank of the Columbia River. Each reactor had its own auxiliary facilities that included a river pump house, large storage and settling basins, a filtration plant, large motor-driven pumps for delivering water to the face of the pile, and facilities for emergency cooling in case of a power failure. [4]

Emergency shutdown of the reactor, referred to as a SCRAM, was attained either by rapidly fully inserting the vertical safety rods or, as a backup method, by the injection of borated water into the reactor. In January 1952, the borated water system was replaced by a "Ball-3X" system that injected nickel-plated high-boron steel balls into the channels occupied by the vertical safety rods. [4]

The plutonium for the nuclear bomb used in the Trinity test in New Mexico and the Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan was created in the B reactor. The B Reactor ran for two decades, and was joined by additional reactors constructed later. It was permanently shut down in February 1968. [4] [11]

Current status

Exterior of the Hanford B Reactor as of 2018 B reactor exterior 2018.jpeg
Exterior of the Hanford B Reactor as of 2018
Hanford B Reactor Control Station as of 2018 B reactor control room 2018.jpeg
Hanford B Reactor Control Station as of 2018
Hanford B Reactor Tubes and Elevator as of 2018 B reactor face crane 2018.jpeg
Hanford B Reactor Tubes and Elevator as of 2018

The United States Department of Energy has administered the site since 1977 [12] [13] and offers public tours on set dates during the spring, summer, and fall of the year, as well as special tours for visiting officials. [6] [14]

As of 2014 six of the nine production reactors at Hanford were considered to be in "interim safe storage" status, and two more were to receive similar treatment. The exception was the B Reactor, which was given special status for its historical significance. [15]

In a process called cocooning or entombment, the reactor buildings are demolished up to the 4 ft-thick (1.2 m) concrete shield around the reactor core. Any openings are sealed and a new roof is built. [16] Most auxiliary buildings at the first three reactors have been demolished, as well. The C reactor was put into operation in 1952 and was shut down in 1969. [17] It was cocooned as of 1998. [18] The D reactor operated from 1944 to June 1967, and was cocooned in 2004. The DR Reactor went online in October 1950, [19] and was shut down in 1964. It was cocooned in 2002. [20] The F reactor was shut down in June 1965 and cocooned in 2003. [21] The H Reactor became operational as of October 1949 and was shut down as of April 1965. It was cocooned as of 2005. [22] Cocooning of the N-Reactor, which operated from 1963 to 1987, was completed as of 14 June 2012. [23] The decommissioned reactors are inspected every five years by the Department of Energy. [18]

The K East and K West reactors were built in the 1950s and went into use in 1955. They were shut down in 1970 and 1971, but reused temporarily for storage later. [24] Preliminary plans for interim stabilizing of the K-East and K-West reactors were underway as of 30 January 2018. [16]

The B Reactor was added to the National Register of Historic Places (#92000245) on 3 April 1992. A Record of Decision (ROD) was issued in 1999, and an EPA Action Memorandum in 2001 authorized hazards mitigation in the reactor with the intention of allowing public tours of the reactor. [25] It was named a National Historic Landmark on 19 August 2008. [3] [4]

In December 2014, passage of the 2015 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) made the B reactor part of the Manhattan Project National Historical Park, which also includes historic sites at Oak Ridge, Tennessee and Los Alamos, New Mexico. [26] [27] The park was formally established by a Memorandum of Agreement on November 10, 2015, which was signed by the National Park Service and the Department of Energy. Museum development at Hanford may include the B Reactor, Bruggemann's Warehouse, Hanford High School, Pump House, and White Bluffs Bank. [28]

Timeline of major events

YearDateEvent
1943October U.S. Army Corps of Engineers breaks ground to build B Reactor [29]
194413 SeptemberFirst uranium fuel slug loaded into B Reactor [29]
194426 SeptemberInitial reactor criticality achieved [29]
19453 FebruaryB Reactor plutonium delivered to Los Alamos [29]
194516 JulyB Reactor plutonium used in world's first nuclear explosion. (Trinity Test Site, New Mexico) [29]
19459 AugustB Reactor plutonium used in Fat Man bomb dropped on Nagasaki, Japan [29]
1946MarchB Reactor operations suspended [29]
1948JuneB Reactor operation resumed [29]
1949MarchB Reactor begins production of tritium for use in hydrogen bombs [29]
19541 MarchFirst use of B Reactor tritium in a test detonation of a hydrogen bomb at Bikini Atoll [ citation needed ]
1968January 29 Atomic Energy Commission directs shutdown of B Reactor [29]
1976B Reactor declared National Historic Mechanical Engineering Landmark by American Society of Mechanical Engineers [29]
1994B Reactor declared National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark by American Society of Civil Engineers [29]
2008B Reactor declared National Historic Landmark by U.S. Department of Interior and National Park Service [29]
2009 U.S. Department of Energy announces public tours [30]
2011JulyNational Park Service recommends B Reactor be included in a national historic park commemorating the Manhattan Project. [5]
2014December2015 National Defense Authorization Act (NDAA) includes B reactor in Manhattan Project National Historical Park [26]
201510 NovemberManhattan Project National Historical Park formally established by Memorandum of Agreement [28]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manhattan Project</span> World War II Allied nuclear weapons program

The Manhattan Project was a research and development program undertaken during World War II to produce the first nuclear weapons. It was led by the United States in collaboration with the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was directed by Major General Leslie Groves of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Nuclear physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer was the director of the Los Alamos Laboratory that designed the bombs. The Army program was designated the Manhattan District, as its first headquarters were in Manhattan; the name gradually superseded the official codename, Development of Substitute Materials, for the entire project. The project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys, and subsumed the program from the American civilian Office of Scientific Research and Development. The Manhattan Project employed nearly 130,000 people at its peak and cost nearly US$2 billion, over 80 percent of which was for building and operating the plants that produced the fissile material. Research and production took place at more than 30 sites across the US, the UK, and Canada.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hanford Site</span> Defunct American nuclear production site

The Hanford Site is a decommissioned nuclear production complex operated by the United States federal government on the Columbia River in Benton County in the U.S. state of Washington. It has also been known as Site W and the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. Established in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project, the site was home to the Hanford Engineer Works and B Reactor, the first full-scale plutonium production reactor in the world. Plutonium manufactured at the site was used in the first atomic bomb, which was tested in the Trinity nuclear test, and in the Fat Man bomb used in the bombing of Nagasaki.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Chicago Pile-1</span> Worlds first human-made nuclear reactor

Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) was the world's first artificial nuclear reactor. On 2 December 1942, the first human-made self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction was initiated in CP-1 during an experiment led by Enrico Fermi. The secret development of the reactor was the first major technical achievement for the Manhattan Project, the Allied effort to create nuclear weapons during World War II. Developed by the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago, CP-1 was built under the west viewing stands of the original Stagg Field. Although the project's civilian and military leaders had misgivings about the possibility of a disastrous runaway reaction, they trusted Fermi's safety calculations and decided they could carry out the experiment in a densely populated area. Fermi described the reactor as "a crude pile of black bricks and wooden timbers".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Columbia Generating Station</span> Nuclear energy facility in Washington, US

Columbia Generating Station is a nuclear commercial energy facility located on the Hanford Site, 10 miles (16 km) north of Richland, Washington. It is owned and operated by Energy Northwest, a Washington state, not-for-profit joint operating agency. Licensed by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in 1983, Columbia first produced electricity in May 1984, and entered commercial operation in December 1984.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">PUREX</span> Spent fuel reprocessing process for plutonium and uranium recovery

PUREX is a chemical method used to purify fuel for nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. PUREX is the de facto standard aqueous nuclear reprocessing method for the recovery of uranium and plutonium from used nuclear fuel. It is based on liquid–liquid extraction ion-exchange.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Metallurgical Laboratory</span> Laboratory at the University of Chicago

The Metallurgical Laboratory was a scientific laboratory from 1942 to 1946 at the University of Chicago. It was established in February 1942 and became the Argonne National Laboratory in July 1946.

Uranium-233 is a fissile isotope of uranium that is bred from thorium-232 as part of the thorium fuel cycle. Uranium-233 was investigated for use in nuclear weapons and as a reactor fuel. It has been used successfully in experimental nuclear reactors and has been proposed for much wider use as a nuclear fuel. It has a half-life of 160,000 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Timeline of the Manhattan Project</span>

The Manhattan Project was a research and development project that produced the first atomic bombs during World War II. It was led by the United States with the support of the United Kingdom and Canada. From 1942 to 1946, the project was under the direction of Major General Leslie Groves of the US Army Corps of Engineers. The Army component of the project was designated the Manhattan District; "Manhattan" gradually became the codename for the entire project. Along the way, the project absorbed its earlier British counterpart, Tube Alloys. The Manhattan Project began modestly in 1939, but grew to employ more than 130,000 people and cost nearly US$2 billion. Over 90% of the cost was for building factories and producing the fissionable materials, with less than 10% for development and production of the weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">N-Reactor</span>

The N-Reactor was a water/graphite-moderated nuclear reactor constructed during the Cold War and operated by the U.S. government at the Hanford Site in Washington; it began production in 1963.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hanford Reach National Monument</span> National monument in the United States

The Hanford Reach National Monument is a national monument in the U.S. state of Washington. It was created in 2000, mostly from the former security buffer surrounding the Hanford Nuclear Reservation. The area has been untouched by development or agriculture since 1943. For this reason, it is considered an involuntary park.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">X-10 Graphite Reactor</span> Decommissioned nuclear reactor in Tennessee

The X-10 Graphite Reactor is a decommissioned nuclear reactor at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge, Tennessee. Formerly known as the Clinton Pile and X-10 Pile, it was the world's second artificial nuclear reactor and the first designed and built for continuous operation. It was built during World War II as part of the Manhattan Project.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Atomic tourism</span> Tourism involving travel to nuclear sites

Atomic tourism or nuclear tourism is a form of tourism in which visitors witness nuclear tests or learn about the Atomic Age by traveling to significant sites in atomic history such as nuclear test reactors, museums with nuclear weapon artifacts, delivery vehicles, sites where atomic weapons were detonated, and nuclear power plants.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plutonium</span> Chemical element with atomic number 94 (Pu)

Plutonium is a chemical element; it has symbol Pu and atomic number 94. It is a silvery-gray actinide metal that tarnishes when exposed to air, and forms a dull coating when oxidized. The element normally exhibits six allotropes and four oxidation states. It reacts with carbon, halogens, nitrogen, silicon, and hydrogen. When exposed to moist air, it forms oxides and hydrides that can expand the sample up to 70% in volume, which in turn flake off as a powder that is pyrophoric. It is radioactive and can accumulate in bones, which makes the handling of plutonium dangerous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Walter Zinn</span> Nuclear physicist (1906–2000)

Walter Henry Zinn was a Canadian-born American nuclear physicist who was the first director of the Argonne National Laboratory from 1946 to 1956. He worked at the Manhattan Project's Metallurgical Laboratory during World War II, and supervised the construction of Chicago Pile-1, the world's first nuclear reactor, which went critical on December 2, 1942, at the University of Chicago. At Argonne he designed and built several new reactors, including Experimental Breeder Reactor I, the first nuclear reactor to produce electric power, which went live on December 20, 1951.

The Atomic Heritage Foundation (AHF) is a nonprofit organization originally based in Washington, DC, dedicated to the preservation and interpretation of the Manhattan Project, the Atomic Age, and its legacy. Founded by Cynthia Kelly in 2002, the Foundation's stated goal is, "to provide the public not only a better understanding of the past but also a basis for addressing scientific, technical, political, social and ethical issues of the 21st century." AHF works with Congress, the Department of Energy, the National Park Service, state and local governments, nonprofit organizations and the former Manhattan Project communities to preserve and interpret historic sites and develop useful and accessible educational materials for veterans, teachers, and the general public. In June 2019, the Atomic Heritage Foundation and the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History signed an agreement that granted stewardship of the Atomic Heritage Foundation website and all of the AHF's physical collections to the museum. The Atomic Heritage Foundation website is now run by the National Museum of Nuclear Science & History. Additionally, the museum now houses the Atomic Heritage Foundation's physical collections which have been integrated into the Nuclear Museum's own collection.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bismuth phosphate process</span>

The bismuth-phosphate process was used to extract plutonium from irradiated uranium taken from nuclear reactors. It was developed during World War II by Stanley G. Thompson, a chemist working for the Manhattan Project at the University of California, Berkeley. This process was used to produce plutonium at the Hanford Site. Plutonium was used in the atomic bomb that was used in the atomic bombing of Nagasaki in August 1945. The process was superseded in the 1950s by the REDOX and PUREX processes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Manhattan Project National Historical Park</span> National Historical Park of the United States

Manhattan Project National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park commemorating the Manhattan Project that is run jointly by the National Park Service and Department of Energy. The park consists of three units: one in Oak Ridge, Tennessee, one in Los Alamos, New Mexico and one in Hanford, Washington. It was established on November 10, 2015 when Secretary of the Interior Sally Jewell and Secretary of Energy Ernest Moniz signed the memorandum of agreement that defined the roles that the two agencies had when managing the park.

The Ames Project was a research and development project that was part of the larger Manhattan Project to build the first atomic bombs during World War II. It was founded by Frank Spedding from Iowa State College in Ames, Iowa as an offshoot of the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of Chicago devoted to chemistry and metallurgy, but became a separate project in its own right. The Ames Project developed the Ames Process, a method for preparing pure uranium metal that the Manhattan Project needed for its atomic bombs and nuclear reactors. Between 1942 and 1945, it produced over 1,000 short tons (910 t) of uranium metal. It also developed methods of preparing and casting thorium, cerium and beryllium. In October 1945 Iowa State College received the Army-Navy "E" Award for Excellence in Production, an award usually only given to industrial organizations. In 1947 it became the Ames Laboratory, a national laboratory under the Atomic Energy Commission.

The Windscale Piles were two air-cooled graphite-moderated nuclear reactors on the Windscale nuclear site in Cumberland on the north-west coast of England. The two reactors, referred to at the time as "piles", were built as part of the British post-war atomic bomb project and produced weapons-grade plutonium for use in nuclear weapons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hanford Engineer Works</span> Former American nuclear production complex

The Hanford Engineer Works (HEW) was a nuclear production complex in Benton County, Washington, established by the United States federal government in 1943 as part of the Manhattan Project during World War II. It built and operated the B Reactor, the first full-scale plutonium production reactor. Plutonium manufactured at the HEW was used in the atomic bomb detonated in the Trinity test in July 1945, and in the Fat Man bomb used in the atomic bombing of Nagasaki in August 1945. The plant continued producing plutonium for nuclear weapons until 1971. The HEW was commanded by Colonel Franklin T. Matthias until January 1946, and then by Colonel Frederick J. Clarke.

References

  1. ↑ Shannon Dininny (26 August 2008). "World's first nuclear reactor now a landmark". Associated Press. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2008. Construction began on June 7, 1943...
  2. ↑ "Department of Energy – B Reactor". United States Department of Energy. 20 April 2007. Archived from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 26 August 2008. Completed in September 1944...
  3. 1 2 3 "Weekly List Actions". National Park Service. 29 August 2008. Archived from the original on 31 October 2008. Retrieved 30 August 2008.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Michele S. Gerber; Brian Casserly; Frederick L. Brown (February 2007). "National Historic Landmark Nomination: B Reactor / 105-B; The 105-B Building in the 100-B/C Area at Hanford" (PDF). National Park Service. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 October 2012.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. 1 2 Cary, Annette (13 July 2011). "HANFORD: Park service recommends B Reactor for national park". Tri-City Herald. Archived from the original on 4 February 2013. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
  6. 1 2 "The B Reactor National Historic Landmark". Manhattan Project: B Reactor. Retrieved 12 November 2015.
  7. ↑ The New World 1939, Page 71, Richard G. Hewlett, 1972
  8. ↑ "B Reactor". U.S. Department of Energy.
  9. ↑ United States Department of Energy. "Hanford Site Virtual Tours: 100-B Area". Hanford Site website. Richland, Washington. Archived from the original on 17 September 2008. Retrieved 23 October 2009.
  10. ↑ Dicke, William (18 February 1997). "Chien-Shiung Wu, 84, Top Experimental Physicist".
  11. ↑ Boyle, Rebecca (2017). "Greetings from Isotopia". Distillations. 3 (3): 26–35. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  12. ↑ Long, Tony (4 August 1977). "All U.S. Energy Placed Under Single Roof". Wired.com. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  13. ↑ "S. 826 — 95th Congress: Department of Energy Organization Act". www.GovTrack.us. 1977. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  14. ↑ "Hanford Site Tours". Hanford.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  15. ↑ National Research Council (2014). Best Practices for Risk-Informed Decision Making Regarding Contaminated Sites: Summary of a Workshop Series. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. ISBN   978-0-309-30305-7 . Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  16. 1 2 Office of Environmental Management (30 January 2018). "Hanford Workers Enter Reactor to Prepare for Cocooning". Energy.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  17. ↑ "C Reactor". Hanford.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  18. 1 2 Cary, Annette (4 July 2015). "Looking inside Hanford's cocooned reactors". Tri-City Herald. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  19. ↑ "D and DR Reactors". Hanford.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  20. ↑ "ISS Reactors". Hanford.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  21. ↑ Cary, Annette (22 October 2014). "Hanford's F Reactor passes 5-year inspection". Tri-City Herald. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  22. ↑ "H Reactor". Hanford.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  23. ↑ Office of Environmental Management (14 June 2012). "N Reactor Placed In Interim Safe Storage: Largest Hanford Reactor Cocooning Project Now Complete". Energy.gov. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  24. ↑ Gerber, Michele Stenehjem (2007). On the home front : the cold war legacy of the Hanford nuclear site (3rd ed.). Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. p. 227. ISBN   978-0803259959 . Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  25. ↑ Potter, Robert F. "Preserving the Hanford B-Reactor: A Monument to the Dawn of the Nuclear Age". APS Physics. Retrieved 19 June 2018.
  26. 1 2 "Congress Passes Manhattan Project National Historical Park Act". Atomic Heritage Foundation. 12 December 2014. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  27. ↑ "B Reactor Museum Association Richland, Washington, USA". B Reactor. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  28. 1 2 "Foundation Document Manhattan Project National Historical Park Tennessee, New Mexico, Washington" (PDF). NATIONAL PARK SERVICE • U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR. January 2017. p. 33. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  29. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Ms, Gerber (May 2009), Manhattan Project B Reactor: World's first full-scale nuclear reactor, vol. HNF-41115, Rev. 0, US Department of Energy, OSTI   952590
  30. ↑ Manhattan Project B Reactor Tour Information, 14 February 2011, archived from the original on 21 July 2011, retrieved 17 July 2011

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.