Bothriocroton

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Bothriocroton
Temporal range: Cenomanian–present
B.undatum female dorsal.png
Light micrograph of female B. undatum.
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Subphylum: Chelicerata
Class: Arachnida
Order: Ixodida
Family: Ixodidae
Subfamily: Bothriocrotoninae
Genus: Bothriocroton
Keirans, King & Sharrad, 1994
Type species
B. glebopalma
Keirans, King & Sharrad, 1994
Ixodidae
Ixodidae cladogram after Barker et al., (2024) [1]

Bothriocroton is a genus of hard ticks. [2] There are seven extant member species, native to Australia and New Guinea. [3] Bothriocroton species typically parasitise monotremes, marsupials, and reptiles.

Contents

Evolutionary history & geographic distribution

Like other Ixodid ticks, Bothriocroton likely emerged in Gondwana, although a more precise point of origin has not been identified. The Prostriata (modern Ixodes ) likely diverged from the Metastriata 234 ± 18 Ma. Basal metastriate lineages, including the Bothriocrotoninae are thought to have originated around 180 ± 15 Ma. [4] [5]

Early Bothriocroton species likely dispersed throughout the Australian landmass, alongside other early metastriata lineages such as Amblyomminae, Khimairidae and Nuttalliellidae. Bothriocroton species likely crossed and occupied Burma terrane over the Incertus Arc following its formation around 155 Ma. [4] [6] As a result, many Ixodida paleobiota, including Bothriocrotoninae, are best known from studies of Burmese amber. B. muelleri, described in 2023, is the only known fossil species attributed to Bothriocroton. [6] The window for Burmese colonisation was brief, with the land connections being lost ~ 140 Ma. [7]

Whatever the diversity of Asian Bothriocroton may have been, it likely collapsed by the mid-Creatceous. [6] Modern Bothriocroton are found only in Australasia, east of the Wallace Line, specifically Australia and New Guinea, formerly comprising Sahul. [8] Climate variability, particularly Australian desertification, [9] has driven the formerly transcontinental distributions of some species to retreat to coastal and subcoastal regions over time. [10]

Ecology

Bothriocroton lifecycles and ecological behaviour are generally poorly known. The exception to this is B. hydrosauri, the southern reptile tick, which, in constrast, is the most thoroughly studied tick of wildlife in the world. [8] Assumptions of the behaviour of other Bothriocroton species are primarily derived from their relationship to B. hydrosauri.

Bothriocroton are thought to be three-host-ticks, meaning that between each life stage (larvae, nymph, adult), the ticks drop off the host to moult or lay eggs. Reptile Bothriocroton, including B. hydrosauri, B. glebopalma and B. undatum are understood to be 'ambush' ticks, dropping off the host in the lizard's refuge, which permits easy access to hosts, which reliably return to the same place. [11] [12] As such, the need to quest is negated. The remaining Bothriocroton are primarily echidna ticks (B. concolor, B. tachyglossi & B. oudemansi), with B. auruginans being a wombat tick. Wombats return reliably to one or more burrows in their home range, which may permit B. auruginans life stages to similarly employ an 'ambush' strategy. Echidnas, however, 'wander' around a home range without consistent 'ambush' sites, meaning that echidna Bothriocroton may quest more actively. [13] [14]

Vector studies

Bothriocroton ticks have a limited pathogenic profile.

B. hydrosauri (southern reptile tick), is a vector of Rickettsia honei , the causative bacteria of Flinders Island spotted fever. [15] [16] The disease is generally mild, without recorded fatalities. [17] One study identified that chronically unwell patients had a significantly higher seropositivity rate for R. honei, but it is not clear whether the infections were causally related to their illnesses. [18]

B. concolor (echidna tick) carries Borrelia tachyglossi, [19] [20] and B. undatum carries Borrelia undatumii, [21] but these bacteria are phylogenetically distinct from Lyme disease or relapsing fever Borrelia , and have not been shown to be pathogenic to humans. [22] [23] [24] Lyme disease Borrelia are carried exclusively by certain prostriate ( Ixodes ) ticks, none of which are endemic to Australia. [24]

Description

Bothriocroton are large (2-7mm), round ticks. Their mouthparts are long, with lateral palpal margins narrower than their basis capitulum. They are further characterised by a posterior anal groove, and absence of sclerotised adanal plates. They have no eyes. The reported synapomorphy for Bothriocroton is three pairs of large wax glands on segment VIII of the larvae. [2] [25]

Bothriocroton may be mistaken for the two species of eyeless Amblyomma ( Aponomma ) native to Australia - A. fimbriatum and A. trimaculatum. Unlike these species, however, Bothriocroton species do not have iridescent or metallic ornamentation. Additionally, all reptile Bothriocroton have distinct lateral grooves in the male. [8]

Taxonomy

Bothriocroton is a relatively new genus. It was first a subgenus, described in 1994 with reference to Bothriocroton glebopalma, which had distinctive characters delineating the species from other what was then Aponomma subgenera. Nuclear rDNA analysis subsequently demonstrated that the heterogenous Aponomma genus was polyphyletic, [26] and Bothriocroton was raised to full generic rank to accommodate a class of former "Indigenous Australian" Aponomma. [2] [27] Bothriocroton is a basal metastriate lineage, and the second-largest of the Haematobothrion lineages, which includes Alloceraea , Archaeocroton , Cryptocroton , Haemaphysalis and Sharifiella . [1] [28] [29]

Species

Bothriocroton currently contains seven extant species:

An additional extinct Bothriocroton species has been proposed from Burmese amber paleobiota specimens.

Etymology

"Bothriocroton" comes from the Greek: bothros, meaning pitted; and krótos, meaning tick. [33] Many Bothriocroton ticks are highly punctate, particularly on the male conscutum.

References

  1. 1 2 Barker, Stephen C.; Kelava, Samuel; Mans, Ben J.; Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Seeman, Owen D.; Gofton, Alexander; Shao, Renfu; Teo, Ernest J. M.; Evasco, Kimberley L.; Soennichsen, Kari F.; Barker, Dayana; Nakao, Ryo (2024-02-12). "The first cryptic genus of Ixodida, Cryptocroton n. gen. for Amblyomma papuanum Hirst, 1914: a tick of North Queensland, Australia, and Papua New Guinea" . Zootaxa. 5410 (1): 91–111. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5410.1.5. ISSN   1175-5334. PMID   38480255.
  2. 1 2 3 Klompen, Hans; Dobson, Susan J; Barker, Stephen C (October 2002). "A new subfamily, Bothriocrotoninae n. subfam., for the genus Bothriocroton Keirans, King & Sharrad, 1994 status amend. (Ixodida: Ixodidae), and the synonymy of Aponomma Neumann, 1899 with Amblyomma Koch, 1844" . Systematic Parasitology . 53 (2). Springer Publishing: 101–107. doi:10.1023/A:1020466007722. ISSN   0165-5752. OCLC   110308408. PMID   12386418.
  3. ↑ Barker, Stephen; Barker, Dayana (2023). Ticks of Australasia: 125 species of ticks in and around Australia. Auckland, New Zealand: Zootaxa, Magnolia Press. p. 12. ISBN   978-1-77688-700-2.
  4. 1 2 Chitimia-Dobler, Lidia; Mans, Ben J.; Handschuh, Stephan; Dunlop, Jason A. (2022). "A remarkable assemblage of ticks from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber". Parasitology. 149 (6): 820–830. doi:10.1017/S0031182022000269. hdl: 2263/91454 . ISSN   0031-1820.
  5. ↑ Mans, Ben J.; Featherston, Jonathan; Kvas, Marija; Pillay, Kerry-Anne; de Klerk, Daniel G.; Pienaar, Ronel; de Castro, Minique H.; Schwan, Tom G.; Lopez, Job E.; Teel, Pete; Pérez de León, Adalberto A.; Sonenshine, Daniel E.; Egekwu, Noble I.; Bakkes, Deon K.; Heyne, Heloise (2019). "Argasid and ixodid systematics: Implications for soft tick evolution and systematics, with a new argasid species list". Ticks and Tick-borne Diseases. 10 (1): 219–240. doi:10.1016/j.ttbdis.2018.09.010. PMID   30309738.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Chitimia-Dobler, Lidia; Dunlop, Jason A.; Pfeffer, Timo; Würzinger, Felix; Handschuh, Stephan; Mans, Ben J. (2023). "Hard ticks in Burmese amber with Australasian affinities". Parasitology. 150 (2): 157–171. doi:10.1017/S0031182022001585. ISSN   0031-1820. PMC   10090639 . PMID   36341553.
  7. ↑ Westerweel J, Roprech P, Licht A, Dupont-Nivet G, Win Z, Poblete F, Ruffet G, Swe HH, Thi MK and Aung DW (2019) Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data. Nature Geoscience 12, 863–868.
  8. 1 2 3 Barker, Stephen C.; Barker, Dayana (2023-03-08). "Ticks of Australasia: 125 species of ticks in and around Australia". Zootaxa. 5253 (1): 1–670. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5253.1.1. ISSN   1175-5334. PMID   37044756.
  9. ↑ Christensen, Beth A.; Renema, Willem; Henderiks, Jorijntje; De Vleeschouwer, David; Groeneveld, Jeroen; Castañeda, Isla S.; Reuning, Lars; Bogus, Kara; Auer, Gerald; Ishiwa, Takeshige; McHugh, Cecilia M.; Gallagher, Stephen J.; Fulthorpe, Craig S.; Scientists, IODP Expedition 356 (2017). "Indonesian Throughflow drove Australian climate from humid Pliocene to arid Pleistocene". Geophysical Research Letters. 44 (13): 6914–6925. Bibcode:2017GeoRL..44.6914C. doi:10.1002/2017GL072977. hdl: 11343/191331 . ISSN   1944-8007.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  10. ↑ Sharrad, RD; King, DR (1981-12-01). "The Geographical Distribution of Reptile Ticks in Western Australia". Australian Journal of Zoology. 29 (6): 861–873. doi:10.1071/zo9810861. ISSN   0004-959X.
  11. ↑ Bull, C.M. & Sharrad, R.D. (1980) Seasonal activity of the reptile tick, Aponomma hydrosauri (Denny) (Acari: Ixodidae) in experimental enclosures. Journal of the Australian Entomological Society, 19, 47=52
  12. ↑ Bull, C.M., Burzacott, D. & Sharrad, R.D. (1989) No competition for resources between two tick species at their parapatric boundary. Oecologia, 79, 558–562
  13. ↑ Badgery, Georgia J.; Lawes, Jasmin C.; Leggett, Keith E. A. (2021-04-16). Yue, Bi-Song (ed.). "Short-beaked echidna (Tachyglossus aculeatus) home range at Fowlers Gap Arid Zone Research Station, NSW". PLOS ONE. 16 (4) e0242298. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1642298B. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0242298 . ISSN   1932-6203. PMC   8051760 . PMID   33861740.
  14. ↑ Clemente, Christofer J.; Cooper, Christine E.; Withers, Philip C.; Freakley, Craig; Singh, Surya; Terrill, Philip (2016-10-15). "The private life of echidnas: using accelerometry and GPS to examine field biomechanics and assess the ecological impact of a widespread, semi-fossorial monotreme". Journal of Experimental Biology. 219 (20): 3271–3283. Bibcode:2016JExpB.219.3271C. doi:10.1242/jeb.143867. ISSN   1477-9145.
  15. ↑ Stenos, John; Graves, Stephen; Popov, Vsevolod L.; Walker, David H. (2003). "Aponomma hydrosauri, the reptile-associated tick reservoir of Rickettsia honei on Flinders Island, Australia". The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene. 69 (3): 314–317. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.2003.69.314. ISSN   0002-9637. PMID   14628950.
  16. ↑ Whitworth, T., Popov, V., Han, V., Bouyer, D., Stenos, J., Graves, S., Ndip, L. & Walker, D. (2003) Ultrastructural and genetic evidence of a reptilian tick, Aponomma hydrosauri, as a host of Rickettsia honei in Australia: possible transovarial transmission. Annals of the New York Academy of Science, 990, 67–74.
  17. ↑ Graves, S. & Stenos, J. (2009) Rickettsioses in Australia. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1166, 151–155.
  18. ↑ Unsworth, N., Graves, S., Nguyen, C., Kemp, G., Graham, J. & Stenos, J. (2008) Markers of exposure to spotted fever rickettsiae in patients with chronic illness, including fatigue, in two Australian populations. QJM, 101, 269–274
  19. ↑ Loh, Siew-May; Gofton, Alexander W.; Lo, Nathan; Gillett, Amber; Ryan, Una M.; Irwin, Peter J.; Oskam, Charlotte L. (2016-06-14). "Novel Borrelia species detected in echidna ticks, Bothriocroton concolor, in Australia". Parasites & Vectors. 9 (1): 339. doi: 10.1186/s13071-016-1627-x . ISSN   1756-3305. PMC   4908759 . PMID   27301754.
  20. ↑ Gofton, Alexander W.; Oskam, Charlotte L.; Lo, Nathan; Beninati, Tiziana; Wei, Heng; McCarl, Victoria; Murray, Dáithí C.; Paparini, Andrea; Greay, Telleasha L.; Holmes, Andrew J.; Bunce, Michael; Ryan, Una; Irwin, Peter (2015-06-25). "Inhibition of the endosymbiont "Candidatus Midichloria mitochondrii" during 16S rRNA gene profiling reveals potential pathogens in Ixodes ticks from Australia". Parasites & Vectors. 8 (1): 345. doi: 10.1186/s13071-015-0958-3 . ISSN   1756-3305. PMC   4493822 . PMID   26108374.
  21. ↑ Panetta, Jessica L.; Šíma, Radek; Calvani, Nichola E. D.; Hajdušek, Ondřej; Chandra, Shona; Panuccio, Jessica; Šlapeta, Jan (2017). "Reptile-associated Borrelia species in the goanna tick (Bothriocroton undatum) from Sydney, Australia". Parasites & Vectors. 10 (1): 616. doi: 10.1186/s13071-017-2579-5 . ISSN   1756-3305. PMC   5738880 . PMID   29262840.
  22. ↑ Gofton, Alexander W.; Margos, Gabriele; Fingerle, Volker; Hepner, Sabrina; Loh, Siew-May; Ryan, Una; Irwin, Peter; Oskam, Charlotte L. (2018-12-01). "Genome-wide analysis of Borrelia turcica and 'Candidatus Borrelia tachyglossi' shows relapsing fever-like genomes with unique genomic links to Lyme disease Borrelia" . Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 66: 72–81. Bibcode:2018InfGE..66...72G. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2018.09.013. ISSN   1567-1348. PMID   30240834.
  23. ↑ "Researchers bring science to Lyme disease debate". ABC News. 2016-07-13. Retrieved 2025-05-27.
  24. 1 2 Gofton, Alexander William; Popa-Baez, Angel; Takano, Ai; Soennichsen, Kari; Michie, Michelle; Short, Makenna; Supriyono, Supriyono; Pascoe, Jack; Cusbert, Sue; Mulley, Robert (2023-09-05). "Characterisation and comparative genomics of three new Varanus-associated Borrelia spp. from Indonesia and Australia". Parasites & Vectors. 16 (1): 317. doi: 10.1186/s13071-023-05937-4 . ISSN   1756-3305. PMC   10481545 . PMID   37670353.
  25. ↑ Burger, Thomas D.; Shao, Renfu; Beati, Lorenza; Miller, Hilary; Barker, Stephen C. (2012). "Phylogenetic analysis of ticks (Acari: Ixodida) using mitochondrial genomes and nuclear rRNA genes indicates that the genus Amblyomma is polyphyletic" . Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 64 (1): 45–55. Bibcode:2012MolPE..64...45B. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2012.03.004.
  26. ↑ Dobson, Susan J.; Barker, Stephen C. (1999-03-01). "Phylogeny of the Hard Ticks (Ixodidae) Inferred from 18S rRNA Indicates That the GenusAponommaIs Paraphyletic" . Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 11 (2): 288–295. Bibcode:1999MolPE..11..288D. doi:10.1006/mpev.1998.0565. ISSN   1055-7903.
  27. ↑ Kaufman, T. S. (1972). A revision of the genus Aponomma Neumann, 1899 (Acarina: Ixodidae). [Doctoral dissertation]. University of Maryland, College Park
  28. ↑ Kelava, Samuel (2023-11-06). Insights into the phylogeny and evolution of ticks from mitochondrial genome sequences (Illumina data). School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences (PhD thesis). The University of Queensland. doi:10.14264/7b61709. Archived from the original on 2025-01-13.
  29. ↑ Apanaskevich, Dmitry A.; Greiman, Stephen E.; Goodman, Steven M.; Apanaskevich, Maria A.; Ahmed, Rokeya; Barker, Stephen C. (2025-04-29). "Validation of Sharifiella Santos Dias, 1958 (Acari: Ixodidae) as a genus of hard ticks containing S. theilerae (Hoogstraal, 1953), a parasite of tail-less tenrec, Tenrec ecaudatus (Schreber) (Afrosoricida: Tenrecidae) on Madagascar" . Zootaxa. 5627 (3): 503–525. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.5627.3.5. ISSN   1175-5334.
  30. ↑ Fabricus, Johann Christian (1775). Systema entomologiae: sistens insectorvm classes, ordines, genera, species, adiectis synonymis, locis, descriptionibvs, observationibvs. Flensbvrgi et Lipsiae, In Officina Libraria Kortii. doi:10.5962/bhl.title.36510.
  31. ↑ Neumann, Louis Georges (1899). Revision of the family Ixodidae (in French). [Paris]. doi:10.5962/t.173870.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  32. ↑ Denny, Henry (November 1943). "Description of Six supposed new species of Parasites" . Annals and Magazine of Natural History. 12 (78): 312–316. doi:10.1080/03745484309442530 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
  33. 1 2 Keirans, James E.; King, Dennis R.; Sharrad, Robert D. (1994-01-01). "Aponomma (Bothriocroton) glebopalma, n. subgen., n. sp., and Amblyomma glauerti n. sp. (Acari: Ixodida: Ixodidae), Parasites of Monitor Lizards (Varanidae) in Australia" . Journal of Medical Entomology. 31 (1): 132–147. doi:10.1093/jmedent/31.1.132. ISSN   1938-2928. PMID   8158616.
  34. ↑ Neumann, Louis Georges (1910). "Description of new species of Ixodidae". Journal of Entomology. 53: 11–17.
  35. ↑ Schulze, Paul (1936). New and little-known Amblyomma and Aponomma samples from Africa, South America, India, Borneo and Australia (Ixodidae) (in German). Zeitschrift für Parasitenkunde. pp. 619–637.
  36. ↑ Roberts, F. H. S. (1953). "The Australian species of Aponomma and Amblyomma (Ixodoidea)" . Australian Journal of Zoology. 1 (1): 111–161. doi:10.1071/zo9530111. ISSN   1446-5698.
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