Casuarina equisetifolia

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Casuarina equisetifolia
Casuarina equisetifolia - Darwin NT.jpg
Subspecies equisetifolia near Darwin
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Fagales
Family: Casuarinaceae
Genus: Casuarina
Species:
C. equisetifolia
Binomial name
Casuarina equisetifolia
Subspecies
  • C. e. subsp. equisetifolia
  • C. e. subsp. incana
Synonyms [2]

Casuarina equisetifolia var. typica Domin

Subspecies incana near Rockhampton Casuarina equesitifolia tree.jpg
Subspecies incana near Rockhampton

Casuarina equisetifolia, commonly known as coastal she-oak, horsetail she-oak, [3] ironwood, [4] beach sheoak, beach casuarina, whistling tree [5] or Australian pine [6] is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is native to Australia, New Guinea, Southeast Asia and India. It is a small to medium-sized, monoecious tree with scaly or furrowed bark on older specimens, drooping branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 7 or 8, the fruit 10–24 mm (0.4–0.9 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 6–8 mm (0.2–0.3 in) long.

Contents

Description

Habit

Casuarina equisetifolia is an evergreen tree typically growing to a height of 6–12 m (20–39 ft), sometimes to 35 m (115 ft) tall. The bark of young specimens is smooth and greyish, older trees have scaly, greyish-brown to black bark. [3] [7]

Foliage

The foliage consists of slender, drooping branchlets up to 30 cm (12 in) long, the leaves reduced to scale-like teeth 0.3–0.5 mm (0.01–0.02 in) long, arranged in whorls of 7 or 8 (occasionally 6) around the branchlets. The sections of branchlet between the leaf whorls (the "articles") are 5–13 mm (0.2–0.5 in) long and 0.5–1.0 mm (0.02–0.04 in) wide. [3] [5] [7]

Flowers

This species of Casuarina is monoecious with male and female flowers produced on the same tree, unlike most other species of its same genus which are dioecious. [7] Its male and female inflorescences are both shaped like catkins. [6] Its male flowers appear in simple spikes 0.7–4 cm (0.28–1.57 in) long in whorls of 7 to 11.5 per cm (per 0.4 in), with anthers are 0.6–0.8 mm (0.02–0.03 in) long, whereas its female flowers are 3–13 mm (0.1–0.5 in) long on short, sparsely hairy peduncles. [3] [5] [7]

Fruit

The fruit is an oval woody structure 10–24 mm (0.39–0.94 in) long and 9–13 mm (0.35–0.51 in) in diameter when mature, superficially resembling a conifer cone made up of numerous carpels. Each carpel contains a single small winged seed 6–8 mm (0.24–0.31 in) long. [3] [5] [7]

Taxonomy and naming

The genus Casuarina was first formally described in 1759 by Carl Linnaeus in Amoenitates Academicae and the first species he described was Casuarina equisetifolia. [8] [9] The specific epithet equisetifolia means 'horsehair-leaved'. [5]

In 1873, George Bentham described Casuarina equisetifolia var. equisetifolia and C. equisetifolia var. incana in Flora Australiensis , [10] and in 1982, Lawrie Johnson changed the names to subspecies equisetifolia and incana respectively, in the Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens : [11]

There is some doubt as to whether Linnaeus' publication of C. equisetifolia is valid, since he based his description solely on Rumphius's description of Casuarina litorea in Herbarium Amboinense [17] and there are no type specimens. [18]

This species is sometimes given the common name "Australian pine" because it has features that seem superficially like those of a pine, but it is not a conifer. [6]

Distribution and habitat

Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. equisetifolia grows near the sea, behind beaches and near estuaries, sometimes on rocky headlands in Australia, New Guinea, Southeast Asia and India. [2] [5] The species is native to India and Bangladesh in South Asia; Myanmar, the Andaman Islands, Nicobar Islands, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Peninsular Malaysia, the Philippines, Borneo, Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands, islands in the South China Sea, Sulawesi and Sumatra in Southeast Asia; the Carolines, Fiji, the Marianas, the Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Tonga, Tuvalu and Vanuatu in the Pacific Ocean; New Guinea; and New South Wales, the Northern Territory, and Queensland in Australia. [2] [5] [13]

Subspecies incana grows on rocky headlands near the coasts of eastern Queensland and New South Wales as far south as Laurieton. [3] [5] [15] [19]

Casuarina equisetifolia has been introduced to many other continents and islands. [2] It is an invasive species in the United States, but biological control by insects, including by a Selitrichodes wasp and Carposinidae and Gelechiidae moths, has been effective. [20] [21] [22] It is also regarded as being invasive in South Africa. [23]

Ecology

Casuarina equisetifolia is an actinorhizal plant able to fix atmospheric nitrogen [24] through a symbiotic relationship with strains of Frankia , a actinomycete hosted in nodules on its roots. [25] : 294 

Uses

Other than ornamental purposes, Casuarina equisetifolia was explored for its potential in remediation of textile dye wastewater. The leaves were found to be useful as absorbent material for the removal of textile dyes, such as reactive orange 16, [26] Rhodamine B, [27] methylene blue, malachite green [28] and methyl violet 2b. [29] Similarly, the dried cone was also reported to be able to remove Rhodamine B, [30] and methyl violet 2b. [31] The bark was reported to able to remove methylene blue. [32] Even the seed was found to be useful in dye removal of neutral red and malachite green. [33] The carbon derived from the cones of C. equisetifolia was found to be a good absorbent for landfill leachate, [34] while another laboratory also reported good absorbency for copper ions from aqueous solution. [35] Its line planting in coastal areas has been known to help control the wind force. In countries like India, it has been known as a suitable species for wasteland development.[ citation needed ]

Culture

Names of places

In Singapore, there is a road named Tanjong Rhu Road because it once had many of these trees growing along the coast from Kallang to Rochor. [36] In the island of Langkawi, Kedah, Malaysia, there is a sand spit in the mouth of the Ayer Hangat river in the Kilim Karst Geoforest Park about 20 km from the town of Kuah also named Tanjung Rhu, where a line of these trees may be seen. [37] The town of Tanjung Aru in Sabah is so named because many specimens of this tree (aru) are found on its beach. [38]

In the Philippines, the town of Agoo is named after the tree (known as agoho or aroo in the Ilocano language). [39]

Invasive species

Casuarina equisetifolia exhibits a high degree of adaptability to different environmental conditions, including coastal habitats, sandy soils, and disturbed areas. This versatility allows it to thrive in a wide range of ecosystems, increasing its potential for invasiveness. [40]

The species produces large quantities of winged seeds contained within cone-like structures. These seeds are easily dispersed by wind and water, facilitating the rapid spread of C. equisetifolia over long distances. This dispersal mechanism enables it to colonize new areas and outcompete native species. [41]

Casuarina equisetifolia's lack of natural predators or pests contributes to its unchecked growth in many regions. While specific scientific references directly addressing this aspect might be limited, the absence of significant herbivory or predation on C. equisetifolia in non-native environments has been observed in ecological studies documenting its invasive behavior [42] [43]

Human activities, such as urbanization, agriculture and landscaping, often contribute to the spread of C. equisetifolia. The species is frequently planted for erosion control, windbreaks, and ornamental purposes, inadvertently introducing it to new areas where it can become invasive. [44]

See also

Related Research Articles

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<i>Casuarina</i> Genus of trees

Casuarina, also known as she-oak, Australian pine and native pine, is a genus of flowering plants in the family Casuarinaceae, and is native to Australia, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, islands of the western Pacific Ocean, and eastern Africa.

<i>Agathis robusta</i> Species of conifer in the family Araucariaceae

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<i>Artocarpus odoratissimus</i> Species of plant in the family Moraceae

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<i>Allocasuarina lehmanniana</i> Species of flowering plant

Allocasuarina lehmanniana, commonly known as dune sheoak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to near-coastal areas of the south-west of Western Australia. It is dioecious or less commonly a monoecious shrub that has its leaves reduced to scales in whorls of six to eight, the mature fruiting cones 12–35 mm (0.47–1.38 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 4.0–5.5 mm (0.16–0.22 in) long.

<i>Juniperus bermudiana</i> Species of conifer

Juniperus bermudiana is a species of juniper endemic to Bermuda. This species is most commonly known as Bermuda cedar, but is also referred to as Bermuda juniper. Historically, this tree formed woodland that covered much of Bermuda. Settlers cleared part of the forest and the tree was used for many purposes including building construction and was especially prized for shipbuilding. Scale insects introduced during the Second World War construction of United States airbases in Bermuda devastated the forests, killing over 99% of the species. Since then, the salt tolerant Casuarina equisetifolia has been planted as a replacement species, and a small number of Bermuda cedars have been found to be resistant to the scale insects. Populations of certain endemic birds which had co-evolved with the tree have plummeted as a result of its demise, while endemic cigalas and solitary bees were driven to extinction.

<i>Allocasuarina luehmannii</i> Species of tree

Allocasuarina luehmannii, commonly known as buloke or bull-oak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to south-eastern continental Australia. It is a dioecious tree, that has its leaves reduced to scales in whorls of ten to fourteen, and the mature fruiting cones are 5–12 mm (0.2–0.5 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 4–5 mm (0.16–0.20 in) long.

<i>Casuarina cunninghamiana</i> Species of tree

Casuarina cunninghamiana, commonly known as river oak, river sheoak or creek oak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is native to Australia and New Guinea. It is a tree with fissured and scaly bark, sometimes drooping branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 6 to 10, the fruit 7–14 mm (0.28–0.55 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 3–4 mm (0.12–0.16 in) long.

<i>Casuarina glauca</i> Species of tree

Casuarina glauca, commonly known as swamp she-oak, swamp buloke, swamp she-oak, marsh sheoak, grey she-oak, grey she-oak, native pine, or guman by the Gadigal people, is a species of flowering plant that is endemic to eastern Australia. It is a dioecious tree that often forms root suckers and has fissured and scaly bark, spreading or drooping branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 12 to 20, the fruit 9–18 mm (0.35–0.71 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 3.5–5.0 mm (0.14–0.20 in) long.

<i>Allocasuarina verticillata</i> Species of plant

Allocasuarina verticillata, commonly known as drooping sheoak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to south-eastern Australia. It is a small dioecious tree that has drooping branchlets up to 400 mm (16 in) long, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of nine to thirteen, the mature fruiting cones 20–50 mm (0.8–2 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 7–12 mm (0.3–0.5 in) long.

<i>Gymnostoma sumatranum</i> Species of tree

Gymnostoma sumatranum is a tree in the she-oak family, Casuarinaceae, native to Southeast Asia and the Malesia region.

<i>Casuarina obesa</i> Species of tree

Casuarina obesa, commonly known as swamp she-oak, swamp oak or western swamp oak, or as goolee, kweela, kwerl and quilinock by the Noongar peoples, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to southern continental Australia. It is a dioecious small tree or shrub that forms root suckers, and has drooping or spreading branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 12 to 16, the fruit 10–20 mm (0.39–0.79 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 3–5 mm (0.12–0.20 in) long.

<i>Casuarina pauper</i> Species of plant

Casuarina pauper, commonly known as black oak, belah or kariku, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to southern continental Australia. It is a dioecious tree with fissured or scaly bark, waxy branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 9 to 13, the fruit 13–18 mm (0.51–0.71 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 5.5–7.0 mm (0.22–0.28 in) long.

<i>Azolla pinnata</i> Species of aquatic plant

Azolla pinnata is a species of fern known by several common names, including mosquitofern, feathered mosquitofern and water velvet. It is native to much of Africa, Asia and parts of Australia. It is an aquatic plant, it is found floating upon the surface of the water. It grows in quiet and slow-moving water bodies because swift currents and waves break up the plant. At maximum growth rate, it can double its biomass in 1.9 days, with most strains attaining such growth within a week under optimal conditions.

<i>Allocasuarina acutivalvis</i> Species of flowering plant

Allocasuarina acutivalvis is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to the southwest of Western Australia. It is a dioecious shrub to small tree that has erect branchlets, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of 10 to 14, the fruiting cones 15–35 mm (0.59–1.38 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 6–12 mm (0.24–0.47 in) long.

<i>Allocasuarina eriochlamys</i> Species of flowering plant

Allocasuarina eriochlamys is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to inland areas of Western Australia. It is a dense, erect, monoecious or dioecious shrub that has more or less erect branchlets, its leaves reduced to scales in whorls of eight to ten, the mature fruiting cones 20–45 mm (0.79–1.77 in) long containing winged seeds (samaras) 5.0–10.5 mm (0.20–0.41 in) long.

<i>Allocasuarina muelleriana</i> Species of plant

Allocasuarina muelleriana, commonly known as slaty sheoak, is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to southern continental Australia. It is a dioecious, rarely a monoecious shrub that has branchlets up to 120 mm (4.7 in) long, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of five to eight, the fruiting cones 14–30 mm (0.55–1.18 in) long containing winged seeds 6–9 mm (0.24–0.35 in) long.

<i>Allocasuarina rigida</i> Species of flowering plant

Allocasuarina rigida is a species of flowering plant in the family Casuarinaceae and is endemic to eastern Australia. It is a dioecious shrub that has branchlets up to 330 mm (13 in) long, the leaves reduced to scales in whorls of seven to ten, and the fruiting cones 8–27 mm (0.31–1.06 in) long containing winged seeds 3.0–7.5 mm (0.12–0.30 in) long.

<i>Casuarina junghuhniana</i> Species of flowering plant

Casuarina junghuhniana, the mountain ru or red-tipped ru, is a tree in the family Casuarinaceae that originated in Java and Lesser Sunda Islands. The species has been introduced to Pakistan and Bangladesh.

References

  1. ↑ Barstow, M. (2019). "Casuarina equisetifolia". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T16728404A16728408. Retrieved 26 December 2023.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 "Casuarina equisetifolia". Plants of the World Online. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Wilson, Karen L.; Johnson, Lawrence A.S. "Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. incana". Royal Botanic Garden Sydney. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  4. ↑ "Casuarina equisetifolia - Common Ironwood, Beach Sheoak, Horsetail Casuarina, Australian Pine, Australian Beefwood - Hawaiian Plants and Tropical Flowers". 2009-12-24. Retrieved 2023-10-27.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Boland, Douglas J.; Brooker, M. I. H.; Chippendale, G. M.; McDonald, Maurice William (2006). Forest trees of Australia. Collingwood, Victoria: CSIRO Publishing. p. 82. ISBN   0-643-06969-0.
  6. 1 2 3 "Casuarina equisetifolia". Landscape Plants. Oregon State University. Retrieved 2023-10-28.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 "Casuarina equisetifolia". Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment: Canberra. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  8. ↑ "Casuarina". APNI. Retrieved 21 April 2023.
  9. ↑ Linnaeus, Carl (1759). Amoenitates academicae, seu, Dissertationes variae physicae, medicae, botanicae. p. 143. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  10. ↑ Bentham, George (1873). Flora Australiensis. Vol. 6. London: Lovell Reeve & Co. p. 197. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  11. ↑ Johnson, Lawrence A.S. (1982). "Notes on Casuarinaceae II". Journal of the Adelaide Botanic Gardens. 6 (1): 79. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  12. ↑ "Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. equisetifolia". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  13. 1 2 "Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. equisetifolia". Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment: Canberra. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  14. ↑ "Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. incana". Australian Plant Census. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  15. 1 2 "Casuarina equisetifolia subsp. incana". Australian Biological Resources Study, Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment: Canberra. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  16. ↑ William T. Stearn (1992). Botanical Latin. History, grammar, syntax, terminology and vocabulary (4th ed.). Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. p. 431.
  17. ↑ Rumphius, Georg E. (1743). Herbarium Amboinense. Vol. 3. Amsterdam. p. 86. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  18. ↑ Wilson, Karen L.; Johnson, Lawrence A.S. (1989). Flora of Australia (PDF). Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service. p. 201. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  19. ↑ "Casuarina equisetifolia" (PDF). World Agroforestry (Centre for International Forestry Research). Retrieved 29 April 2023.
  20. ↑ "Biological control of Australian native Casuarina species in the USA". Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation. 16 May 2007. Archived from the original on 5 June 2011. Retrieved 16 September 2010.
  21. ↑ Masterson, J (4 October 2007). "Casuarina equisetifolia (Australian Pine)". Fort Pierce: Smithsonian Marine Station. Archived from the original on 2 July 2009. Retrieved 5 May 2009.
  22. ↑ Purcell, Matthew. "Evaluating Biological Control Agents of Australian Pine". United States Department of Agriculture. Retrieved 30 April 2023.
  23. ↑ "SANBI:Declared Weeds & Invader Plants". South African National Biodiversity Institute. Archived from the original on 2014-10-06. Retrieved 25 September 2014.
  24. ↑ Tan, Ria (October 2016). "Rhu or Casuarina tree". Wild Singapore. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  25. ↑ Benson, David R.; Silvester, Warwick B. (June 1993). "Biology of Frankia strains, actinomycete symbionts of actinorhizal plants". Microbiological Reviews. 57 (2): 293–319. doi:10.1128/mr.57.2.293-319.1993. PMC   372911 . PMID   8336669.
  26. ↑ Bharti, Vikash; Shahi, Amrita; Geed, Sachin; Kureel, M.K. (2017). "Biodegradation of reactive orange 16 dye in the packed bed bioreactor using seeds of Ashoka and Casuarina as packing media". Indian Journal of Biotechnology. 16: 216–221.
  27. ↑ Kooh, Muhammad Raziq Rahimi; Dahri, Muhammad Khairud; Lim, Linda B.L. (2016). "The removal of rhodamine B dye from aqueous solution using Casuarina equisetifolia needles as absorbent". Cogent Environmental Science. 2 (1). Bibcode:2016SusEn...240553K. doi: 10.1080/23311843.2016.1140553 .
  28. ↑ Dahri, Muhammad Khairud; Kooh, Muhammad Raziq Rahimi; Lim, Linda B.L. (2015). "Application of Casuarina equisetifolia needle for the removal of methylene blue and malachite green dyes from aqueous solution". Alexandria Engineering Journal. 54 (4): 1253. doi: 10.1016/j.aej.2015.07.005 .
  29. ↑ Dahri, Muhammad Khairud; Kooh, Muhammad Raziq Rahimi; Lim, Linda B. L. (2013). "Removal of Methyl Violet 2B from Aqueous Solution Using Casuarina equisetifolia Needle". ISRN Environmental Chemistry. 2013: 1–8. doi: 10.1155/2013/619819 .
  30. ↑ Dahri, Muhammad Khairud; Kooh, Muhammad Raziq Rahimi; Lim, Linda B. L. (2016). "Remediation of Rhodamine B Dye from Aqueous Solution Using Casuarina equisetifolia Cone Powder as a Low-Cost Absorbent". Advances in Physical Chemistry. 2016: 1–7. doi: 10.1155/2016/9497378 .
  31. ↑ "Water remediation using Casuarina equisetifolia cone as adsorbent for the removal of methyl violet 2B dye using batch experiment method". Journal of Environment & Biotechnology Research. 6 (1): 34–42. January 2017. Archived from the original on 19 March 2017 – via ViNaNiE.
  32. ↑ "Adsorption of methylene blue by Casuarina equisetifolia bark". CNKI. Archived from the original on 2020-07-10. Retrieved 2018-02-15.
  33. ↑ "Application of microwave-treated Casuarina equisetifolia seeds in adsorption of dyes". Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences. 9: 458–471. 2017. doi:10.4314/JFAS.V9I7S.43 (inactive 1 November 2024). ISSN   1112-9867.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  34. ↑ Alrozi, Rasyidah; Zubir, Nor Aida; Kamaruddin, Mohamad Anuar; Yusof, Siti Noor Faizah Mohd; Yusoff, Mohd Suffian (2017). "Removal of organic fractions from landfill leachate by Casuarina equisetifolia activated carbon: Characteristics and absorption mechanisms". AIP Conference Proceedings. 1885 (1): 020139. Bibcode:2017AIPC.1885b0139A. doi:10.1063/1.5002333.
  35. ↑ Muslim, A. (2017). "AUSTRALIAN PINE CONES-BASED ACTIVATED CARBON FOR ADSORPTION OF COPPER IN AQUEOUS SOLUTION" (PDF). Journal of Engineering Science and Technology. 12 (2): 280–295.
  36. ↑ Thulaja, Naidu Ratnala (24 January 2018) [31 December 2004]. "Tanjong Rhu Road". Infopedia. Government of Singapore . Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  37. ↑ "Tanjung Rhu". Kilim Geoforest Park. The Cooperative of Kilim Village Community Langkawi Limited. 2022. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  38. ↑ "'Replant Aru trees, mangroves at Tanjung Aru blaze site' call". Daily Express. 22 July 2021. Retrieved 25 October 2022.
  39. ↑ Sals, Florent Joseph (2005). The History of Agoo: 1578-2005. La Union: Limbagan Printhouse. p. 80.
  40. ↑ Nandy, Paramesh; Ahammad, Ronju; Alam, Mesbahul; Islam, Aminul (2013), "Coastal Ecosystem Based Adaptation: Bangladesh Experience", Climate Change Adaptation Actions in Bangladesh, Tokyo: Springer Japan, pp. 277–303, doi:10.1007/978-4-431-54249-0_15, ISBN   978-4-431-54248-3 , retrieved 2024-03-28
  41. ↑ Zhang, Y.; Zhong, C.L.; Han, Q.; Jiang, Q.B.; Chen, Y.; Chen, Z.; Pinyopusarerk, K.; Bush, D. (2016). "Reproductive biology and breeding system in Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarinaceae) – implication for genetic improvement". Australian Journal of Botany. 64 (2): 120. doi:10.1071/bt15184. ISSN   0067-1924.
  42. ↑ Taylor, Mary (2021-01-26). "Plant growth regulators in crop management". doi:10.1079/hc.13880108.20219903029 . Retrieved 2024-03-28.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  43. ↑ Khare, C.P. (2007), "Casuarina equisetifolia Linn.", Indian Medicinal Plants, New York, NY: Springer New York, p. 1, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-70638-2_311, ISBN   978-0-387-70637-5 , retrieved 2024-03-28
  44. ↑ Kent, Eliza F. (2022-03-30), "Can Tamil Sacred Groves Survive Neoliberalism?", Sacred Forests of Asia, London: Routledge, pp. 102–103, doi:10.4324/9781003143680-10, ISBN   978-1-003-14368-0 , retrieved 2024-03-28
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