Cross-border language

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A cross-border language [1] or trans-border language [2] is a language spoken by a population (an ethnic group or nation) that lives in a geographical area in two or several internationally recognized countries that have common land or maritime borders.

Contents

Types

There are four types of cross-border languages. They are measured according to the criteria of the size of the geographical area in which they are spoken as well as their number of speakers. According to the geographical criteria, cross-border languages can be limited international languages or simply international languages. [3]

Cross-border languages are limited international languages when they are spread over a geographical area which is small compared to the size of the country; they may or may not have official status. They are international when they are situated over one or several geographical areas (ranging from regional to continental) with official status in at least one country. According to the population criteria, cross-border languages are either symmetrical or asymmetrical. [3] Symmetrical border languages are those spoken by small or large linguistic groups on both sides of a border. Many are languages which may seem insignificant, but which play an important role in interactions, integration and economic activity.

Asymmetrical border languages are spoken by large groups on one side of a border and small groups on the other. As they are dominant in at least one country, they have the potential to be used in larger domains, depending on the speakers' resources. [3]

Types of trans-border languages 1 - Symmetrical and limited: Gagauz in yellow 2 - Symmetrical and international: German in green 3 - Asymmetrical and limited: Basque in purple 4 - Asymmetrical and international: Hungarian in blue Languetransfrontaliere.png
Types of trans-border languages
1 - Symmetrical and limited: Gagauz in yellow
2 - Symmetrical and international: German in green
3 - Asymmetrical and limited: Basque in purple
4 - Asymmetrical and international: Hungarian in blue

Changes in status

Kurdish-speaking territories in red, with official status of the Kurdish language alongside Arabic in dark red in Iraqi Kurdistan Kurdish Language Map2.png
Kurdish-speaking territories in red, with official status of the Kurdish language alongside Arabic in dark red in Iraqi Kurdistan

Languages can change status due to all sorts of political circumstances. Kurdish, a minority language in Turkey, Syria, Iran and Iraq, was considered a symmetrical and limited language, but thanks to the recognition of Kurdish as an official language in Iraqi Kurdistan in the new constitution of Iraq, [6] it became an asymmetrical and limited cross-border language with the 15 October 2005 referendum. This strengthened the possibilities for survival and vigorous use of the language, as well as giving hope to neighbouring communities.

Difference in population

When considering both asymmetrical and symmetrical cross-border languages, the population of the country in question remains key. A minority language among small language groups in a small country may be more important than a language with a large number of speakers in a large country.

The population which speaks Hausa numbers 25 million people in total, of which 18 million are part of the population of 140 million in Nigeria. They are a large linguistic population, but they are a minority in the country, representing only 13% of Nigerians. On the other hand, there are only 5 million Hausas in Niger, out of a population of 11 million, but they are proportionally greater than in Nigeria, as 45% of the population, that is, 3.5 times the proportion of the population of the country as a whole. Hausa is thus more important sociolinguistically in Niger than in Nigeria.

Cross-border languages and international languages

Portuguese is an international language, but not a cross-border language. Detailed SVG map of the Lusophone world.svg
Portuguese is an international language, but not a cross-border language.

A cross-border language is always an international language (spoken in two or more nations) but not all international languages are cross-border languages. For example, Portuguese, which is an international language spoken in Angola, Brazil, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique, Portugal, Timor-Leste, São Tomé and Principe and Cape Verde, has no territorial continuity between these countries (except arguably if Galician, spoken in Spain, generally considered a separate language, is considered a dialect of Portuguese). The Lusophone countries over four continents have no common borders.

In defining cross-border languages, the fundamental criterion is the presence of a language on both sides of a border. If a language is spoken in two countries without common borders such as French in Canada and France, it may be preferable to refer to a world language or a shared language. French is however also a cross-border language, spoken on both sides of the borders of France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Monaco, Switzerland and Italy (Aosta Valley).

In the current global economy, English is an international language for the exchange of goods and services. It became a cross-border language following the conquests of the British Empire, notably with the establishment of the Canada–United States border and the partition of Ireland. Languages such as Vietnamese or Japanese, which are not cross-border languages, have little chance of being used in cross-border exchanges, and their use remains limited to the confines of one country. Another exception is Chinese, an official language in three sovereign states, which is an international language but not trans-border. Singapore (76% ethnic Chinese), Taiwan and China have no territorial continuity.

Cross-border languages rarely have no native speakers in the border regions, excepting international lingua francas. Swahili is one exception; although it is the native language of a mere 5 million people on the coasts of Kenya and Tanzania, it is used as a lingua franca and a cross-border language over 11 borders and with 55 million speakers. Swahili is used as a trade language between Burundi and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Despite its small territory and low number of monolingual native speakers, Swahili, particularly in contact with Arabic, became the language of choice for communication between various groups of people.

Status of speakers

Linguistic distribution of the Basque language in the Basque Country Euskara.png
Linguistic distribution of the Basque language in the Basque Country

An individual living in an area where a cross-border language is spoken can exhibit various levels of comprehension. The four categories of speakers in terms of comprehension[ citation needed ] can be illustrated by the example of Basque, which is spoken in the western Pyrenees, on both sides of the border between the states of Spain and France.

Relationship with the border

Border control regimes (police, customs, military posts, etc.), as a symbol of sovereignty and the means of regulating circulation of people and goods, are perceived as lines of separation and alienation by the people living on either side. [7]

Ethnolinguistic identities which cross arbitrary borders are often ignored by states and their officials. The feelings of the peoples divided by the separation border may be manifested in a strengthening of networks between different groups on both sides and a desire to ignore or supersede the national borders.

The presence of the border can contribute to two types of nationalism: either an ethnolinguistic nationalism based on a common (trans-border) language, or political nationalist movements identifying with the nations on each side of the border.

Cross-border languages are often codified in different ways on each side of a border, with different orthographic norms, etc. This complicates the standardisation of resources for education and literature and increases the cost of language planning for a given language, which is often necessary to prevent language endangerment.

Functions

Dutch facilitates cultural and social exchanges between the Netherlands and Belgium. Dutcharea.png
Dutch facilitates cultural and social exchanges between the Netherlands and Belgium.

Cross-border languages commonly have an economic role. The existence of trade between one country and another requires the use of an international and/or a cross-border language to facilitate exchange. English plays a major role in the relations between the United States and Canada, two of the most intertwined economies in the world.

The political milieu in many countries uses international languages most of the time, but trans-border languages are often used, in an informal or an official manner. Following the resolution of the border conflict between Ethiopia and Eritrea, Eritrea uses Tigrinya and Arabic as working languages. Tigrinya and Arabic are spoken on both sides of the border with Ethiopia [8] and Sudan, respectively.

Culture is closely bound to language. A Flemish author or director from Belgium can easily release a book or film in the Netherlands. Dutch is a cross-border language which facilitates cultural and social exchanges.

Geographic distribution of the Kongo and Kituba languages LanguageMap-Kikongo-Kituba.png
Geographic distribution of the Kongo and Kituba languages

Trans-border languages can play an intermediary role in the spread of religions. Institutions make use of cross-border languages as a propaganda tool to convert new populations. As an example, certain Christian churches evangelise populations in Africa with translations of the Bible and the help of associations such as the Summer Institute of Linguistics7. For instance, the Kimbanguist church, founded by a Congolese man converted by a Protestant missionary society, operates in the territory of the Kikongo language [9] (18 million speakers across Angola, Gabon and the western regions of Congo-Kinshasa and Congo-Brazzaville). Already over a century ago, oblate missionaries in the Congo studied Kikongo in Ipamu as part of their training.

Cross-border languages can represent a refuge. Many Basques became refugees in France during the Franco regime. Many Pashto speakers cross the Durand line to Pakistan to escape economic hardships as well as Taliban and American repression in Afghanistan. These speakers of a cross-border language are often not included in the census.

Smuggling is very widespread among cross-border linguistic minorities who can find a livelihood in it. Mohawk is used by indigenous people in Quebec or Ontario who can cross the American border with no problems, as their reservation straddles the Canada–United States border. [10]

Linguistic assimilation by trans-border languages, most often those which are asymmetrical and considered important by the rest of the population of the country, continues at the detriment of less prestigious languages. At the beginning of the 20th century, Brussels underwent a rather significant reduction in use of Dutch in favour of French, given the international status of the latter.

Future

Cross-border languages are normally defined in accordance with the laws of internationally-recognised states. However, so-called cross-border languages predate the establishment of state borders. For example, the Lunda language is primarily that of a language community and territory in southern-central Africa, before it is a minority language of the states of Angola, Zambia, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The borders were created and enforced after the existence of the group, as is the case in many regions of the world.

Estimates based on current language policies assert that 90% of the 6000-7000 languages [11] [12] in the world will become extinct in a century. [11] Language policies will determine the survival of cross-border languages in most countries. Certain tools exist such as the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, which protect minority languages and are supported by the language policy of the European Union, which can leave space to confront the linguistic imperialism of international languages.

List of cross-border languages

North America

Central America

South America

South Asia

Related Research Articles

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A minority language is a language spoken by a minority of the population of a territory. Such people are termed linguistic minorities or language minorities. With a total number of 196 sovereign states recognized internationally and an estimated number of roughly 5,000 to 7,000 languages spoken worldwide, the vast majority of languages are minority languages in every country in which they are spoken. Some minority languages are simultaneously also official languages, such as Irish in Ireland or the numerous indigenous languages of Bolivia. Likewise, some national languages are often considered minority languages, insofar as they are the national language of a stateless nation.

A regional language is a language spoken in a region of a sovereign state, whether it be a small area, a federated state or province or some wider area.

Language shift, also known as language transfer or language replacement or language assimilation, is the process whereby a speech community shifts to a different language, usually over an extended period of time. Often, languages that are perceived to be higher-status stabilise or spread at the expense of other languages that are perceived by their own speakers to be lower-status. An example is the shift from Gaulish to Latin during the time of the Roman Empire.

<i>Yeísmo</i> Sound merger of ⟨ll⟩ and ⟨y⟩ in most Spanish dialects

Yeísmo is a distinctive feature of certain dialects of the Spanish language, characterized by the loss of the traditional palatal lateral approximant phoneme and its merger into the phoneme. It is an example of delateralization.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guarani-Kaiowá</span> Indigenous people of South America

Guarani-Kaiowás are an indigenous people of Paraguay, the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul and northeastern Argentina. In Brazil, they inhabit Ñande Ru Marangatu, an area of tropical rainforest. This was declared a reservation in October 2004. Marcos Verón, a leader of this people was beaten to death in January 2003.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Spain</span> Languages spoken across Spain

The majority of languages of Spain belong to the Romance language family, of which Spanish is the only language which has official status for the whole country. Those also include Catalan and Galician as well as an additional number of languages and dialects belonging to the Romance language continuum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Bolivia</span> Overview of the languages commonly spoken in Bolivia

The languages of Bolivia include Spanish; several dozen indigenous languages, most prominently Aymara, Quechua, Chiquitano, and Guaraní; Bolivian Sign Language ; and languages of immigrants such as Plautdietsch. Indigenous languages and Spanish are official languages of the state according to the 2009 Constitution. The constitution says that all indigenous languages are official, listing 36 specific languages, of which some are extinct. Spanish and Quechua are spoken primarily in the Andes region, Aymara is mainly spoken in the Altiplano around Lake Titicaca, Chiquitano is spoken in the central part of Santa Cruz, and Guaraní is spoken in the southeast on the border with Paraguay.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Argentina</span>

Spanish is the language that is predominantly understood and spoken as a first, or second language by nearly all of the population of Argentina. According to the latest estimations, the population is currently greater than 45 million.

Chiripá Guarani, also known as Ava Guarani and Nhandéva (Ñandeva), is a Guaraní language spoken in Paraguay, Brazil, and also Argentina. Nhandéva is closely connected to Mbyá Guaraní, as intermarriage between speakers of the two languages is common. Speakers of Nhandéva and Mbyá generally live in mountainous areas of the Atlantic Forest, from eastern Paraguay through Misiones Province of Argentina to the southern Brazilian states of Paraná, Santa Catarina, and Rio Grande do Sul. There are approximately 4,900 speakers in Brazil and 7,000 in Paraguay.

Mbya Guarani is a Tupi–Guarani language spoken by approximately 6,000 Brazilians, 3,000 Argentines, and 8,000 Paraguayans. It is 75% lexically similar to Paraguayan Guarani.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guarani dialects</span> Distinct groups within the Guaraní subgroup

The Guaraní language belongs to the Tupí-Guaraní branch of the Tupí linguistic family.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of South America</span>

The languages of South America can be divided into three broad groups:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraguayan Spanish</span> Set of dialects of Spanish of Paraguay

Paraguayan Spanish is the set of dialects of the Spanish language spoken in Paraguay. In addition, it influences the speech of the Argentine provinces of Misiones, Corrientes, Formosa, and, to a lesser extent, Chaco. Paraguayan Spanish possesses marked characteristics of the Spanish previously spoken in northern Spain, because a majority of the first Spanish settlers were from Old Castile and the Basque Country. In addition, there is great influence, in both vocabulary and grammar, from the Guarani language. Guarani is co-official with Spanish in Paraguay, and most Paraguayans speak both languages. Guaraní is the home language of more than half the population of Paraguay, with higher proportions of its use in rural areas, and those who speak Spanish at home slightly in the majority in the cities. In addition to the strong influence of Guarani, Paraguayan Spanish is also influenced by Rioplatense Spanish due to the geographical, historical, and cultural proximity, as well as the sharing of features such as voseo, which is "the use of vos as a second-person singular pronoun." Paraguayan Spanish is notable for its lack of yeísmo, meaning that the phonemes /ʎ/ and /ʝ/ are distinguished.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Languages of Paraguay</span>

The Republic of Paraguay is a mostly bilingual country, as the majority of the population uses Spanish and Guaraní. The Constitution of Paraguay of 1992 declares it as a multicultural and bilingual country, establishing Spanish and Guaraní as official languages. Spanish, an Indo-European language of the Romance branch, is understood by about 90% of the population as a first or second language. Guaraní, an indigenous language of the Tupian family, is understood by 77%, and its use is regulated by the Academy of the Guaraní Language.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Linguistic landscape</span> Language on public signs

The linguistic landscape refers to the "visibility and salience of languages on public and commercial signs in a given territory or region". Linguistic landscape research has been described as being "somewhere at the junction of sociolinguistics, sociology, social psychology, geography, and media studies". It is a concept which originated in sociolinguistics and language policy as scholars studied how languages are visually displayed and hierarchised in multilingual societies, from large metropolitan centers to Amazonia. For example, linguistic landscape scholars have described how and why some public signs in Jerusalem are presented in Hebrew, English, and Arabic, or a combination thereof. It also looks as how communication in public space plays a crucial role in the organisation of society.

Warázu, also known as Pauserna or Guarasugwé (Guarasú'we), is a moribund Tupi–Guaraní language of Brazil. It was also formerly spoken in Bolivia. It is spoken by the Guarasugwé people, who were estimated to number 125 according to a census in 2012.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mbyá Guaraní people</span> Indigenous people in South America

The Mbyá, also called Mbyá Guaraní, are a branch of the Guaraní people who live in South America, across a wide territory that ranges through Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay.

References

  1. ↑ Ndhlovu, Finex (2013-04-01). "Cross-border Languages in Southern African Economic and Political Integration". African Studies. 72 (1): 19–40. doi:10.1080/00020184.2013.776196. ISSN   0002-0184.
  2. ↑ Chumbow, Beban Sammy (1999-01-01). "Transborder languages of Africa". Social Dynamics. 25 (1): 51–69. doi:10.1080/02533959908458661. ISSN   0253-3952.
  3. 1 2 3 Bamgbose, Ayo (1993). "Deprived, Endangered, and Dying Languages". Diogenes. 41 (161): 19–25. doi:10.1177/039219219304116102. ISSN   0392-1921.
  4. ↑ "Entreprises de linguicide", term used by Claude Hagège, Halte à la morte des langues, Paris, Éditions Odile Jacob, coll. « Poches Odile Jacob, 98. », 2002, 381 p.
  5. ↑ "UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in danger". www.unesco.org. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
  6. ↑ "Iraq's Constitution of 2005 - Constitute Project" (PDF). The Arabic language and the Kurdish language are the two official languages of Iraq. The right of Iraqis to educate their children in their mother tongue, such as Turkmen, Assyrian, and Armenian shall be guaranteed in government educational institutions in accordance with educational guidelines, or in any other language in private educational institutions.
  7. ↑ "Transborder Languages of Africa and trans-national co-operation", Prof. Sammy Chumbow, University of Yaoundé.
  8. ↑ Dias, Alexandra Magnólia (2011-12-20). "The Conduct of an Inter-state War and Multiple Dimensions of Territory: 1998-2000 Eritrea-Ethiopia war". Cadernos de Estudos Africanos (22): 21–41. doi: 10.4000/cea.384 . hdl: 10071/3189 . ISSN   1645-3794.
  9. ↑ Hermann Hochegger, Grammaire du kiKongo ya leta, CEEBA, sér. III : travaux linguistiques, vol. 6).
  10. ↑ Keating, Joshua. "The Nation That Sits Astride the U.S.-Canada Border". POLITICO Magazine. Retrieved 2019-06-26.
  11. 1 2 McWhorter, John H. (2015-01-02). "What the World Will Speak in 2115". Wall Street Journal. ISSN   0099-9660 . Retrieved 2019-06-26.
  12. ↑ "How many languages are there in the world?". Ethnologue. 2016-05-03. Retrieved 2019-06-26.
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