The European rock pipit (Anthus petrosus), or simply rock pipit, is a species of small passerine bird that breeds in western Europe on rocky coasts. It has streaked greyish-brown upperparts and buff underparts, and is similar in appearance to other European pipits. There are three subspecies, of which only the Fennoscandian one is migratory, wintering in shoreline habitats further south in Europe. The European rock pipit is territorial at least in the breeding season, and year-round where it is resident. Males will sometimes enter an adjacent territory to assist the resident in repelling an intruder, behaviour only otherwise known from the African fiddler crab.
European rock pipits construct a cup nest under coastal vegetation or in cliff crevices and lay four to six speckled pale grey eggs which hatch in about two weeks with a further 16 days to fledging. Although insects are occasionally caught in flight, the pipits feed mainly on small invertebrates picked off the rocks or from shallow water.
The first formal description naming this species was by English naturalistGeorge Montagu in 1798.[5] It had previously been described in 1766 by Thomas Pennant, in the first edition of British Zoology, although he did not distinguish it from the common titlark (meadow pipit). It was first shown to be different from that species by John Walcott in the 1789 edition of his Synopsis of British Birds, in which he called it the sea lark. John Latham was the first to give the European rock pipit a scientific name, Alauda obscura in 1790, but the specimen he examined had been misidentified as to the species and was in fact a dusky lark. In the same year, Montagu, whom Latham had consulted about the bird, discovered the European rock pipit on the coast of South Wales, where it was known to some fishermen in the region as the "rock lark". He adopted that name for the species and gave it the scientific name Alauda petrosus.[5][6]
The scientific name of the European rock pipit is from Latin. Anthus is the name given by Pliny the Elder to a small bird of grasslands, and the specific petrosus means "rocky", from petrus, "rock".[7]
There are three recognised subspecies of the European rock pipit:[3]
breeds in Fennoscandia and northwestern Russia and winters on the west coast of Europe south to northwest Africa.
A. p. kleinschmidti is sometimes merged with the nominate form, A. p. petrosus. The suggested subspecies A. p. meinertzhageni on South Uist, A. p. hesperianus on the Isle of Arran, and A. p. ponens in northwestern France cannot be reliably separated from the nominate form. There is a geographical trend in appearance, with longer-billed, darker birds at the western end of the range, and shorter-billed, paler individuals in the east.[3]
The European rock pipit is 16.5–17 centimetres (6.5–6.7in) long and weighs 18–32.5 grams (0.63–1.15oz). The nominate race has smoky-olive upperparts, weakly streaked with darker brown, and buff underparts, heavily marked with poorly defined brown streaks. The legs, bill and iris are dark brown or blackish, and there is a pale eye-ring. The sexes are alike; although males average slightly brighter than females, the overlap is complete and birds cannot be sexed on appearance or measurements.[8] Immature birds resemble the adult, although they may sometimes be browner and more streaked above,[3] looking superficially similar to meadow pipits.[8]
Compared to the nominate form, A. p. kleinschmidti has slightly yellower, less olive, upperparts and brighter and yellower underparts between the breast streaking.[3]A. p. littoralis may show pinkish underparts and a pale supercilium (eyebrow) in summer, thereby resembling the water pipit. Vagrant European rock pipits in winter are readily distinguishable from water pipits, but very difficult to assign to subspecies by appearance or measurements. The western populations are known to be nearly sedentary, so east of the Elbebasin vagrant Eurasian rock pipits are presumably mostly littoralis.[9][10]
Adult European rock pipits have a complete moult in August–September, at which time juveniles replace their body and some wing covert feathers, giving them an appearance very like the adults. From late January to early March there is a partial moult and individually variable moult of some body and wing covert feathers, and sometimes the central tail feathers.[11]
The European rock pipit is closely related to the water pipit and the meadow pipit,[12] and is rather similar in appearance. Compared to the meadow pipit, the European rock pipit is darker, larger and longer-winged than its relative, and has dark, rather than pinkish-red, legs. The water pipit in winter plumage is also confusable with the European rock pipit, but has a strong supercilium and greyer upperparts; it is also typically much warier. The European rock pipit's dusky, rather than white, outer tail feathers are also a distinction from all its relatives.[13] The habitats used by European rock and water pipits are completely separate in the breeding season, and there is little overlap even when birds are not nesting.[8]
The European rock pipit's song is a sequence of about twenty tinkling cheepa notes followed by a rising series of thin gee calls, and finishing with a short trill.[14] The shrill pseep flight call is intermediate between the soft sip sip sip of the meadow pipit and the water pipit's short, thin fist.[13]
The European rock pipit is almost entirely coastal, frequenting rocky areas typically below 100 metres (330ft), although on St Kilda it breeds at up to 400 metres (1,300ft).[15] The European rock pipit is not troubled by wind or rain, although it avoids very exposed situations. It may occur further inland in winter or on migration.[3]
The breeding range is temperate and Arctic Europe on western and Baltic Sea coasts,[14] with a very small number sometimes nesting in Iceland.[15] The nominate race is largely resident, with only limited movement. A. p. kleinschmidti, which nests on the Faroe Islands and the Scottish islands, may move to sandy beaches or inland to rivers and lakes in winter. A. p. littoralis is largely migratory, wintering on coasts from southern Scandinavia to southwest Europe, with a few reaching Morocco. Wanderers have reached Spitsbergen and the Canary Islands, but records in Europe away from the coast are rare.[3] For example, a male shot at Dresden in 1894, now in the collection of the local State Museum of Zoology, is the sole specimen for Saxony.[9]
Migratory populations leave their breeding grounds in September and October, returning from March onwards, although in the far north they may not arrive before May.[15]
Behaviour
The European rock pipit is a much more approachable bird than the water pipit. If startled, it flies a fairly short distance, close to the ground, before it alights, whereas its relative is warier and flies some distance before landing again.[10] Eurasian rock pipits are usually solitary, only occasionally forming small flocks.[13]
The bird lays four to six speckled pale grey eggs which hatch in about two weeks.
The European rock pipit is highly territorial in the breeding season, and throughout the year where it is resident. Breeding males have a song display in which they fly to 15–30 metres (49–98ft) above the ground, then circle or descend to the ground with a fluttering "parachute" flight.[3] Territorial males will sometimes enter the territory of an adjacent male to cooperate in evicting an intruder. This behaviour, which requires the ability to distinguish the resident from the intruder, is only otherwise known from the African fiddler crab.[16][17]
Eggs are laid from early to mid-April in Britain and Ireland, from mid-May in southern Scandinavia, and from June in the north. The nest is always close to the shore, in a cliff crevice or hole, or under the cover of vegetation.[15] It is constructed by the female from seaweed and dead grass, and lined with finer fibres or hair.[14]
The clutch is four to six eggs, glossy pale grey with darker grey or olive speckles mainly at the wider end. They measure 21.6 by 16.0 millimetres (0.85in ×0.63in) and weigh 2.7 grams (0.095oz),[lower-alpha 1][14] of which 5% is shell.[18] They are incubated for 14–16days to hatching, almost entirely by the female, although males have been recorded as occasionally helping.[14] The naked altricial chicks are brooded by the female and fledge in about 16days.[15] Both parents may feed the chicks for several days after fledging.[3] There may be two broods in a year in the south of the pipit's range, and just one further north.[15]
In a British survey, a hatching rate of 82% and a fledging rate of 78% gave an overall 58% nesting success,[14] with an average 2.5 surviving young per pair. In contrast, a study in northwestern France found juvenile mortality was nearly 70%.[3] The average lifespan is not recorded,[18] although the maximum recorded age is 10.9 years.[19]
Feeding
The European rock pipit's feeding habitat is rocky coasts, rather than the damp grassland favoured by the water pipit.[13] The European rock pipit feeds mainly on invertebrates, seeking out most of its prey on foot, only occasionally flying to catch insects. It will venture into shallow water as it follows retreating waves,[15] and may take advantage of human activity that exposes sea slaters or other species that hide under stones.[14]
Food items include snails, worms, small crustaceans, flies and beetles. The proportions of each prey species vary with season and locality. Amphipodlarvae are important in Ireland and Scotland, crustaceans in Norway, and the molluscAssiminea grayana in the Netherlands.[3] Small fish are occasionally eaten, and in hard weather pipits may scavenge for other food, including human food litter. There is little competition from other species for food, since rocky beach specialists like the purple sandpiper take slightly larger food items, and may wade in deeper water. When food is abundant, meadow pipits may also feed on the shore, but are driven away by the European rock pipits when there is less prey available.[14]
Predators and parasites
The European rock pipit is hunted by birds of prey including the Eurasian sparrowhawk.[20][21] As with other members of its genus, it is a host of the common cuckoo, a brood parasite.[22] Eggs laid by cuckoos that specialise in using pipits as their hosts are similar in appearance to those of the pipit.[23]
Estimates of the breeding population of the European rock pipit vary,[1] but may be as high as 408,000 pairs, of which around 300,000 pairs are in Norway. Despite slight declines in the British population and some range expansion in Finland, the population is considered overall to be large and stable,[3] and for this reason it is evaluated as a species of least concern by the IUCN.[1]
Breeding densities vary from 0.9–6pairs/km (1.4–9.7pairs/mi) of coast depending on the quality of the habitat. There are few threats, although oil spills can temporarily reduce the invertebrate population of affected rocky coasts.[3]
Notes
↑ For A. p. petrosus and A. p. littoralis. A. p. kleinschmidti is fractionally larger at 22.2 by 16.1 millimetres (0.87in ×0.63in).[14]
Related Research Articles
The cuckoo, common cuckoo, European cuckoo or Eurasian cuckoo is a member of the cuckoo order of birds, Cuculiformes, which includes the roadrunners, the anis and the coucals.
The white wagtail is a small passerine bird in the family Motacillidae, which also includes pipits and longclaws. The species breeds in much of Europe and the Asian Palearctic and parts of North Africa. It has a toehold in Alaska as a scarce breeder. It is resident in the mildest parts of its range, but otherwise migrates to Africa. In Ireland and Great Britain, the darker subspecies, the pied wagtail or water wagtail predominates; this is also called in Ireland willie wagtail, not to be confused with the Australian species Rhipidura leucophrys which bears the same common name. In total, there are between 9 and 11 subspecies of M. alba.
The pipits are a cosmopolitan genus, Anthus, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Along with the wagtails and longclaws, the pipits make up the family Motacillidae. The genus is widespread, occurring across most of the world, except the driest deserts, rainforest and the mainland of Antarctica.
The wagtails, longclaws, and pipits are a family, Motacillidae, of small passerine birds with medium to long tails. Around 70 species occur in five genera. The longclaws are entirely restricted to the Afrotropics, and the wagtails are predominantly found in Europe, Africa, and Asia, with two species migrating and breeding in Alaska. The pipits have the most cosmopolitan distribution, being found mostly in the Old World, but occurring also in the Americas and oceanic islands such as New Zealand and the Falklands. Two African species, the yellow-breasted pipit and Sharpe's longclaw, are sometimes placed in a separate seventh genus, Hemimacronyx, which is closely related to the longclaws.
The grey wagtail is a member of the wagtail family, Motacillidae, measuring around 18–19 cm overall length. The species looks somewhat similar to the yellow wagtail but has the yellow on its underside restricted to the throat and vent. Breeding males have a black throat. The species is widely distributed, with several populations breeding in Eurosiberia and migrating to tropical regions in Asia and Africa. The species is always associated with running water when breeding, although they may use man-made structures near streams for the nest. Outside the breeding season, they may also be seen around lakes, coasts and other watery habitats. Like other wagtails, they frequently wag their tail and fly low with undulations and they have a sharp call that is often given in flight.
The water pipit is a small passerine bird which breeds in the mountains of Southern Europe and the Palearctic eastwards to China. It is a short-distance migrant; many birds move to lower altitudes or wet open lowlands in winter.
The meadow pipit is a small passerine bird, which breeds in much of the Palearctic, from southeastern Greenland and Iceland east to just east of the Ural Mountains in Russia, and south to central France and Romania; an isolated population also occurs in the Caucasus Mountains. It is migratory over most of its range, wintering in southern Europe, North Africa, and south-western Asia, but is resident year-round in western Europe, though even here many birds move to the coast or lowlands in winter.
The tree pipit is a small passerine bird which breeds across most of Europe and the Palearctic as far East as the East Siberian Mountains. It is a long-distance migrant moving in winter to Africa and southern Asia. The scientific name is from Latin: anthus is the name for a small bird of grasslands, and the specific trivialis means "common".
The buff-bellied pipit or American pipit is a small songbird found on both sides of the northern Pacific. It was first described by Marmaduke Tunstall in his 1771 Ornithologia Britannica. It was formerly classified as a form of the water pipit. It is known as "American pipit" in North America and "buff-bellied pipit" in Eurasia.
The paddyfield pipit or Oriental pipit is a small passerine bird in the pipit and wagtail family. It is a resident (non-migratory) breeder in open scrub, grassland and cultivation in southern Asia east to the Philippines. Although among the few breeding pipits in the Asian region, identification becomes difficult in winter when several other species migrate into the region. The taxonomy of the species is complex and has undergone considerable changes.
Sprague's pipit is a small songbird (passerine) in the family Motacillidae that breeds in the short- and mixed-grass prairies of North America. Migratory, it spends the winters in the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. Sprague's pipits are unusual among songbirds in that they sing high in the sky, somewhat like a goldfinch or skylark. It is more often identified by its distinctive descending song heard from above than by being seen on the ground. Males and females are cryptically coloured and similar in appearance; they are a buffy brown with darker streaking, slender bills and pinkish to yellow legs. Sprague's pipit summer habitat is primarily native grasslands in the north central prairies of the United States and Canada. The species was named after the botanical illustrator Isaac Sprague.
↑ Tyler, Stephanie (2004). "Family Motacillidae (Pipits and Wagtails)". In del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Christie, D.A. (eds.). Handbook of the Birds of the World. Vol.9: Cotingas to Pipits and Wagtails. Barcelona, Spain: Lynx Edicions. pp.686–743. ISBN978-84-87334-69-6.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Tyler, Stephanie (2020). del Hoyo, Josep; Elliott, Andrew; Sargatal, Jordi; Christie, David A.; de Juana, Eduardo (eds.). "Rock Pipit (Anthus petrosus)". Birds of the World. Ithaca, NY, US: Cornell Lab of Ornithology. doi:10.2173/bow.rocpip1.01. S2CID216195668.
↑ Voelker, Gary (1999). "Molecular evolutionary relationships in the Avian genus Anthus (Pipits: Motacillidae)". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 11 (1): 84–94. doi:10.1006/mpev.1998.0555. PMID10082613.
1 2 3 Alström, Per; Mild, Krister (2003). Pipits and Wagtails of Europe, Asia and North America. Identification and Systematics (Helm Identification Guides). London: Christopher Helm. pp.164–169. ISBN978-0-7136-5834-7.
1 2 Töpfer, Till (2008). "Nachweise seltener Vogeltaxa (Aves) in Sachsen aus der ornithologischen Sammlung des Museums für Tierkunde Dresden" [Records of rare bird taxa (Aves) in Saxony from the ornithological collection of the Zoological Museum Dresden]. Faunistische Abhandlungen (in German). 26 (3): 63–101. ISSN0375-2135.
1 2 Bijlsma, R J (1977). "Voorkomen en oecologie van Anthus spinoletta spinoletta en A. s. littoralis in de uiterwaarden van de Rijn bij Wageningen" [Distribution and ecology of A. spinoletta and A. s. littoralis in the Rhine floodplain at Wageningen]. Limosa (in Dutch). 50 (3–4): 127–136. ISSN0024-3620.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Snow, David; Perrins, Christopher M, eds. (1998). The Birds of the Western Palearctic concise edition (2 volumes). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp.1088–1092. ISBN978-0-19-854099-1.
↑ Detto, Tanya; Jennions, Michael D; Backwell, Patricia R Y (2010). "When and Why Do Territorial Coalitions Occur? Experimental Evidence from a Fiddler Crab". The American Naturalist. 175 (5): E119–E125. doi:10.1086/651588. JSTOR651588. PMID20302425. S2CID44135001.
↑ Elfström, S T (1997). "Fighting behavior and strategy of rock pipit, Anthus petrosus, neighbors: cooperative defense". Animal Behaviour. 54 (3): 535–542. doi:10.1006/anbe.1996.0492. PMID9299039. S2CID53152258.
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