Greater weever

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Greater weever
Trachinus draco (cropped).jpg
Trachinus draco 2.jpeg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Trachiniformes
Family: Trachinidae
Genus: Trachinus
Species:
T. draco
Binomial name
Trachinus draco
Synonyms

Trachinus lineatus Bloch & Schneider, 1801

The greater weever (Trachinus draco, Linnaeus 1758) is a benthic and demersal venomous marine fish of the family Trachinidae. The greater weever is widely distributed along the eastern Atlantic coastline from Norway to Morocco, extending to the Mediterranean, Aegean and Black Seas. Trachinus draco has been shown to occur in depths ranging from shallow water up to -150 meters where it inhabits mostly muddy or sandy grounds. [2] [3] Trachinus draco is mostly and notoriously known for its venomous spines that can inflict serious injuries on humans through accidental stinging. Because of these spines and its potent venom it is classified as one of the most venomous fishes in the Mediterranean. [3] ⁠ The name "weever" is thought to originate from the Anglo-Saxon word "wivre" which translates as "viper". [4]

Contents

Physical appearance

Greater weever Trachinus draco 08-2010 11 (cropped).jpg
Greater weever

Trachinus draco is an elongated and laterally flattened fish with upstanding eyes and a distinct superior mouth that is inclined upwards. The lower jaw is longer than the upper jaw. The head is compact flat and relatively big and the eyes sit almost on top of it.⁠ [5] The upper rim of the eye has two to three small spines, in front of each eye. The five to seven spiny fin rays on its first dorsal fin and the thorns on each of the gill covers have venom glands at their basis. [6] [7] [5] ⁠

Colouration

Greater weever Trachinus draco Stefano Guerrieri (cropped).jpg
Greater weever

On its dorsal side Trachinus draco is coloured in a greenish brown with a varying count of dark marks on the upper side of the head. The flank is hued in a yellowish brown with bright blue and yellow discontinuous stripes that run crooked to the front of the fish.⁠ [8] Additionally oblique black stripes can be found laterally. This pattern is described as tiger-like by Horst Müller. [7] ⁠

Body dimensions

The body dimensions of Trachinus draco are described very differently by different authors and seem to differ based on the geographical location were the study has been carried out.

Greater weever Trachinus draco1.jpg
Greater weever

In the Eastern Black Sea, the length distribution of mature fishes ranges from 10 cm up to a maximum of 25.8 cm for females and from 9.5 cm to 22.5 cm for males. The weight ranges from 6.96 g to 131.76 g for females and from 5.34 g to 75.84 g for males.⁠ [9]

While the largest female recorded in the Eastern Black Sea was 25.8 cm long, the findings in other studies suggest, that Trachinus draco has a much bigger range in size than that found in this study. In the Algarve Coast of Southern Portugal the largest female found by Santos et al. had a total maximum length of 39.6 cm. [10] But also in the Black Sea specimens have been observed, that outrange the largest female found by Ak & Genç in 2013. The largest female found by Ak et al. in the Black Sea had a total maximum length of 35 cm. [9] ⁠ For Ak & Genç it seems to be clear that many factors contribute to the varying size of Trachinus draco like "temperature, salinity, food (quantity, quality and size), sex, time of year and stage of maturity". [9] ⁠

Ecology and behaviour

Diet and feeding behaviour

Trachinus draco is an ambush predator that digs itself into fine sand during daytime only with its eyes and the tip of the dorsal fin exposed.⁠ [11] There it lurks until prey emerges which is then attacked in a swift and sudden manner. [12] At night the greater weever is believed to swim around freely, even pelagically. This is supported by the finding that prey in the stomach of T. draco which were caught during daytime was already mostly digested; the feeding activity of T. draco seems to be higher during night time.⁠⁠⁠ [9] ⁠

T. draco is a carnivore that mainly feeds on decapods, teleost fish and opossum shrimps as catches in the eastern-central Adriatic Sea suggest. To a lower extent their diet contains also isopods, amphipods, cephalopods and bivalves. In general the former make up to over 90% of the total Index of Relative Importance (IRI). The most common prey that could be identified to the rank of species, were decapods, namely Liocarcinus depurator and Galathea strigosa , and mysids, namely Anchialina agilis . But the compounds of the diet altered significantly with fish size. While the relatively small mysids were the most common prey for T. draco under a size of 20 cm, their importance in the diet composition decreased with size, as the importance of amphipods did, too. On the other hand, the share of cephalopods and fishes increased with fish size. The feeding habit of T. draco in the eastern Adriatic Sea differs very little over the year and decapods have been the most common prey through all seasons but peaked through summer and autumn while teleostei consumption peaked in winter. [9] ⁠⁠ In Danish waters on the other hand Merlangius merlangus and to smaller extent Clupeoides were the main feeding source in the time of winter.⁠ [13] The frequency of empty stomachs, in the specimens found in the eastern Adriatic Sea was around 15% in general, but differed significantly through the year. In winter the frequency of empty stomachs was highest, with a maximum at around 43.3% and was lowest in summer with 6.8% and in autumn with 7.8%. [9] ⁠ These findings were somewhat similar to those in Danish waters. In Kattegat the amount of empty stomachs has been observed in the months of January to April and is described as "very high, close to 100% in some month".⁠⁠ [11] ⁠ Those findings may be due to the lower water temperature of around 12 to 13 °C and the therefore lowered metabolism and feeding activity respectively. [9] ⁠ Aquarium experiments with stable light, temperature, salinity and sustained food supply on the contrary suggest an endogenous feeding pattern because even under such conditions the fishes refused to eat in the time from January to April and from October to March. [11] ⁠

Reproduction and spawning behaviour

The reproduction period of T. draco seems to lasts from June to October. [2] ⁠ This very broad range is limited by the observations of Ole Bagge (2004) who states that his findings strongly indicate that the spawning time of T. draco is indeed restricted to the period between June and August with a peak in July. Bagge also says that there have been no findings of greater weever in spawning condition from September to May. [11] ⁠ T. draco is an oviparous spawning fish that lays its eggs into the pelagic zone. [9] ⁠The larvae have a size of about 4.8 mm to 6.8 mm [11] ⁠ and hatch after approximately three months. The larvae and the eggs can both be found in the pelagic zone and the surface plankton. [14] The larvae of T. draco may have a need for relatively warm water with a relatively low salinity to hatch in greater numbers.⁠ [11] ⁠ T. draco is probably not territorial, even in the mating season. It has not been observed to carry out any form of parental care. [15]

Toxicity

Venomous apparatus

The venomous apparatus of T. draco consists of one spine on each operculum and five to eight dorsal spines. The spines on the operculum point towards the cauda, or tail, and are slightly bent downwards. The opercular spines arise from the upper edge of the operculum and are connected to the operculum with one third of their complete length. The other two thirds of their length lies free along the operculum. The total length of the opercular spines is approximately 27 mm. The spine itself is "covered by an integumentary sheath". [4] ⁠⁠ If this sheath ruptures because there is force applied to the spine, it allows the venom to leak from the venom gland cells and to run through a deep groove along the spine and into the wound caused by the sting. Each of the dorsal spines is covered in an individual integumentary sheet. The spines are connected through a fine interspinous membrane. The spines have different length and are by that arranged in a curve like manner. The spines observed by Russel & Emery (1960) had minimum lengths of 5 mm and maximum lengths of 29 mm and were quite heterogeneous in their appearance on a microscopic level. The dorsal spines are all bent very slightly towards the tail of the fish. The mechanism of envenomation is quite similar to that of the opercular spines. [4] ⁠

Venom glands

The glands producing T. draco’s venom are located in the derma of the fish. The venom glands are cased in connective tissue coated with a basal lamina which has a length of 0.1 μm. The venom glands are built up of polygonal cells with a long axis length of 40–50 μm. These cells show a relatively heterogeneous cytoplasm with noticeable large vacuoles and heterogeneous granular (Verdiglione, Mammola, Gargano, & Montesi, 2003). As in the tissue of the lesser weever (Echiichthys vipera) supporting cells can be found in T. draco which develop from epidermal cells. These supporting cells form pockets inside the venom glands which are filled with differentiated glandular cells. The supporting cells most probably play a role in the cohesiveness of the venom gland and in the regeneration of the glandular cells. [16]

Toxin

The potentially lethal protein component in the crude venom of T. draco is a 105 kDa polypeptide which is called Dracotoxin. The crude venom of T. draco has been shown to have membrane depolarizing and haemolytic characteristics. Those characteristics could be retraced to said single protein component. [17] The depolarisation effect however could not be explained by well-established approaches. Neither does the depolarisation effect take place through Na+ or K+-channels nor through Na+-K+-ATPase activity.⁠ [18] The weever sting is often followed by first ischemic and subsequently hyperemic effects in the tissue surrounding the sting. These effects might be related to the high concentrations of histamines and catecholamines found in the venom.⁠ [19] ⁠⁠While Church & Hodgson (2002) suggest a cholinesterase activity of the toxin itself, Haavaldsen & Fonnum (1963) interpreted their finding of a high concentration of cholinesterase in the venom as a sign for a cholinergic mechanism in the production of the venom because cholinesterase activity hasn't yet been described in the venoms of the animal kingdom. [20] ⁠ [21] As Russel & Emery (1960) stated, the toxin extract of T. draco has a greyish colour but is clear in its appearance. It is said to have a "fishy taste" and "ammoniacal odor". The pH value of the extract seems to be 6.78 and is with that slightly sour. [4] ⁠ The toxin of the closely related lesser weever T. vipera has been shown to contain 5-Hydroxy-Triptamine also called Serotonin but in the toxin of T. draco this finding could not be confirmed⁠. [17] ⁠ The toxicity of the venom was dependent on the way of extraction. The highest toxicity was measured in live fish which were shock frozen and laired in −70 °C-freezers. Under such conditions the minimal lethal dose for mice was 1.8 μg/g while at least 110 mg could be extracted from an average sized fish. [18] ⁠

Relationship with humans

The most common incident regarding humans is strongly connected with T. draco’ s typical behaviour: being burrowed in the sand of shallow waters. Especially in the summer it is quite possible for a careless bather to step, jump or fall on the venomous spines of the greater weever. The other occasion where humans are at risk to get stung by T. draco is when fishermen are handling the fish if caught in a net.⁠ [5] ⁠ ⁠The venom of the greater weever is best-known for the excruciating pain it provokes a short period of time after the initial sting which can last from a few hours to days. There are in fact cases reported in which victims of a weever sting were still affected by it after a period of 4 months, even if this seems to be a rare scenario. [20] The pain can in some cases reach up to a 10/10 on the numeric rating scale. In a reported case from 1782, a fisherman who had been stung, amputated his own finger to relieve the pain. [5] ⁠ [20] ⁠ Even if there are reported cases of fatal accidents with T. draco, it is widely believed that those are due to secondary infections and sepsis rather than to the toxin itself. [5] ⁠

A greater weever, half-buried in the sand in shallow water. Fjaesing halvt nedgravet i sand.jpg
A greater weever, half-buried in the sand in shallow water.

Treatment

There are as many recommended treatments for a sting of the greater weever as there are fishermen who were stung by them. These recommendations reach from the application of hot water or vinegar to more arcane methods like fish liver, tobacco juice or the suggestion of "burning the devilish weever, swear and pray". [4] ⁠ The modern medicine does in fact recommend the application of any kind of heat preferably to souse the affected limb into hot water (40–42 °C). Beside this first aid attempt to ease the pain it is recommended to clean the wound and to see a physician because antibiotics, further analgesics or even a tetanus prophylaxis might be appropriate. [20] ⁠

Commercial use

Although the greater weever is sold commercially in France, where it is seen as a delicacy, it is often caught as by-catch. [5] ⁠ [9] ⁠ If caught together with other by-catch fish it is often sold on markets in the category of mixed fish also called "morralla" or at least this is considered a practice in some parts of the Mediterranean. [2] ⁠

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venom</span> Toxin secreted by an animal

Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved venom apparatus, such as fangs or a stinger, in a process called envenomation. Venom is often distinguished from poison, which is a toxin that is passively delivered by being ingested, inhaled, or absorbed through the skin, and toxungen, which is actively transferred to the external surface of another animal via a physical delivery mechanism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cnidocyte</span> Stinging cell used by cnidarians

A cnidocyte is an explosive cell containing one large secretory organelle called a cnidocyst that can deliver a sting to other organisms. The presence of this cell defines the phylum Cnidaria. Cnidae are used to capture prey and as a defense against predators. A cnidocyte fires a structure that contains a toxin within the cnidocyst; this is responsible for the stings delivered by a cnidarian. Cnidocytes are single-use cells that need to be continuously replaced.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scorpaenidae</span> Family of fishes

The Scorpaenidae are a family of mostly marine fish that includes many of the world's most venomous species. As their name suggests, scorpionfish have a type of "sting" in the form of sharp spines coated with venomous mucus. The family is a large one, with hundreds of members. They are widespread in tropical and temperate seas but mostly found in the Indo-Pacific. They should not be confused with the cabezones, of the genus Scorpaenichthys, which belong to a separate, though related, family, Cottidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Weever</span> Family of fishes

Weevers are nine extant species of fishes of family Trachinidae, order Trachiniformes, part of the Percomorpha clade. They are long, mainly brown in color, and have venomous spines on their first dorsal fin and gills. During the day, weevers bury themselves in sand, just showing their eyes, and snatch prey as it comes past, which consists of shrimp and small fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Foxface rabbitfish</span> Species of fish

The foxface rabbitfish, also known as the foxface, black-face rabbit fish, badger fish or the common foxface is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is found in the Indian and Pacific Oceans. It can be found in the aquarium trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Venomous fish</span> Fish that have the ability to produce toxins

Venomous fish are species of fish which produce strong mixtures of toxins harmful to humans which they deliberately deliver by means of a bite, sting, or stab, resulting in an envenomation. As a contrast, poisonous fish also produce a strong toxin, but they do not bite, sting, or stab to deliver the toxin, instead being poisonous to eat because the human digestive system does not destroy the toxin they contain in their bodies. Venomous fish do not necessarily cause poisoning if they are eaten, as the digestive system often destroys the venom.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lesser weever</span> Species of fish

The lesser weever is a venomous weever of the family Trachinidae, in the order Perciformes, and the class Actinopterygii. It is generally found on the sandy sea beds of the open sea, near the shore. Lesser weevers may sting swimmers badly if disturbed in the water, and fishermen when they clean their fishing nets.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Spotted weever</span> Species of fish

The spotted weever is a fish of the family Trachinidae, order Perciformes, and class Actinopterygii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange-spotted spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The orange-spotted spinefoot, also known as the deepbody spinefoot, gold-saddle rabbitfish, golden rabbitfish, golden-spotted spinefoot, goldlined spinefoot or yellowblotch spinefoot, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is found in the eastern Indian Ocean and western Pacific Ocean. It occasionally makes its way into the aquarium trade.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Streaked spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The streaked spinefoot, also known as the Java rabbitfish, blue-spotted spinefoot, blue-spotted trevally, Java spinefoot or white-spotted rabbit-fish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is found throughout most of the Indo-Pacific region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Starry weever</span> Species of fish

The starry weever, or streaked weever is a fish of the family Trachinidae widespread in the eastern Atlantic from Gibraltar to the Gulf of Guinea, and probably further south; it is also known from the Mediterranean Sea. A marine subtropical fish, it grows up to 50 cm (20 in) in length.

<i>Plotosus lineatus</i> Species of fish

Plotosus lineatus, commonly known as the striped eel catfish, is a species of eeltail catfishes belonging to the family Plotosidae. Like most other members of the genus Plotosus, they possesses highly venomous spines that they can use to sting when threatened. The venom can cause mild to severe symptoms in humans. P. lineatus is native to the Indo-Pacific but has become introduced to the Mediterranean via the Suez Canal as a Lessepsian migrant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dusky spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The dusky spinefoot, also known as the squaretail rabbitfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is native to the western Indian Ocean which has spread to the Mediterranean Sea through the Suez Canal. Its fin spines contain venom. It is regarded as a food fish.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden-lined spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The golden-lined spinefoot, also known as the goldlined rabbitfish or lined rabbitfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is found in the tropical Western Pacific and along the coasts of northern Australia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vermiculated spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The vermiculated spinefoot, also known as maze rabbitfish, scribbled spinefoot or vermiculate rabbitfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. Like all rabbitfishes, it has venomous spines on the dorsal, anal, and pelvic fins. It is a reef associated fish species of the Indo-West Pacific region. It is a common commercially important fish in many tropical countries.

A fish sting is an injury which may include envenomation and mechanical trauma. There are a number of species of venomous fish including the stonefish.

<i>Siganus fuscescens</i> Species of fish

Siganus fuscescens, the mottled spinefoot, black rabbitfish, black spinefoot, dusky rabbitfish, fuscous rabbitfish, happy moments, mi mi, pearl-spotted spinefoot, pin-spotted spinefoot, stinging bream or West Australian rabbitfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It is found in the Western Pacific Ocean.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peppered spinefoot</span> Species of fish

The peppered spinefoot, also known as the finespotted rabbitfish, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It occurs in the Indo-West Pacific region.

<i>Siganus punctatus</i> Species of fish

Siganus punctatus the goldspotted spinefoot, goldspotted rabbitfish, punctuated spinefoot, spotted rabbitfish, spotted spinefoot or yellow-spotted spinefoot, is a species of marine ray-finned fish, a rabbitfish belonging to the family Siganidae. It occurs in the Indo-West Pacific region.

References

  1. ↑ Carpenter, K.E.; Smith-Vaniz, W.F.; de Bruyne, G.; de Morais, L. (2015). "Trachinus draco". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2015: e.T198719A42691954. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-4.RLTS.T198719A42691954.en . Retrieved 20 November 2021.
  2. 1 2 3 ORDINES, F.; FARRIOLS, M.T.; LLEONART, J.; GUIJARRO, B.; QUETGLAS, A.; MASSUTÍ, E. (26 September 2014). "Biology and population dynamics of by-catch fish species of the bottom trawl fishery in the western Mediterranean". Mediterranean Marine Science. 15 (3): 613. doi: 10.12681/mms.812 . hdl: 10508/2639 .
  3. 1 2 Čustović, Selma; Vrgoč, Nedo; Isajlović, Igor; Krstulović Šifner, Svjetlana; Piccinetti, Corrado (2015). "Distribution and Population Structure of Greater Weever, Trachinus draco (Linnaeus, 1758.), in the Northern and Central Adriatic Sea". Naše More. 62 (1): 20–24. doi: 10.17818/NM.1.4.2015 .
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Russell, Findlay E.; Emery, Jerry A. (November 1960). "Venom of the Weevers Trachinus Draco and Trachilvus Vipera". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 90 (3): 805–819. Bibcode:1960NYASA..90..805R. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1960.tb26424.x. PMID   13744837. S2CID   43812740.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Davies, R S; Evans, R J (1 March 1996). "Weever fish stings: a report of two cases presenting to an accident and emergency department". Emergency Medicine Journal. 13 (2): 139–141. doi:10.1136/emj.13.2.139. PMC   1342661 . PMID   8653243.
  6. ↑ Valentin, Claus (1986). Faszinierende Unterwasserwelt des Mittelmeeres : Einblicke in die Meeresbiologie küstennaher Lebensräume (2. Neudr. ed.). Pisa [u.a.]: Pacini. ISBN   978-3-49012-018-2.
  7. 1 2 Müller, Horst (1987). Fische Europas (2. Aufl. ed.). Leipzig: Neumann. ISBN   9783740200442.
  8. ↑ Neumann, Volker (2005). Mittelmeer-Atlas : Fische und ihre Lebensräume (1. Aufl. ed.). Melle, Germany: Mergus, Verl. für Natur- und Heimtierkunde Baensch. ISBN   978-3-88244-061-4.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Ak, Orhan; Genç, Yasar (1 January 2013). "Growth and reproduction of the greater weever (Trachinus draco L., 1758) along the eastern coast of the Black Sea". Journal of Black Sea / Mediterranean Environment. 19 (1). ISSN   1304-9550.
  10. ↑ Santos, M N; Saldanha, Hugo Jorge; Garcia, Alexandra (2002). "Observations on by-catch from a tuna trap fishery off the Algarve (Southern Portugal)" (PDF). Collective Volume Scientific Papers ICCAT. 54 (5): 1726–1732.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Šantić, M.; Pallaoro, A.; Rađa, B.; Jardas, I. (August 2016). "Diet composition of greater weever, (Linnaeus, 1758) captured in the eastern-central Adriatic Sea in relation to fish size, season and sampling area". Journal of Applied Ichthyology. 32 (4): 675–681. doi: 10.1111/jai.13081 .
  12. ↑ Kruschel, Claudia; Schultz, Stewart T. (July 2012). "Use of a lure in visual census significantly improves probability of detecting wait-ambushing and fast cruising predatory fish". Fisheries Research. 123–124: 70–77. doi:10.1016/j.fishres.2011.11.015.
  13. ↑ Bagge, Ole (September 2004). "The biology of the greater weever () in the commercial fishery of the Kattegat". ICES Journal of Marine Science. 61 (6): 933–943. doi: 10.1016/j.icesjms.2004.07.020 .
  14. ↑ d’Elbée, Jean; Castège, Iker; Hémery, Georges; Lalanne, Yann; Mouchès, Claude; Pautrizel, Françoise; D’Amico, Frank (April 2009). "Variation and temporal patterns in the composition of the surface ichthyoplankton in the southern Bay of Biscay (W. Atlantic)". Continental Shelf Research. 29 (8): 1136–1144. Bibcode:2009CSR....29.1136D. doi:10.1016/j.csr.2008.12.023.
  15. ↑ Almada, Vítor C.; Henriques, M.; Gonçalves, E. J. J. (1999). "Ecology and behaviour of reef fishes in the temperate north-eastern Atlantic and adjacent waters". Behaviour and Conservation of Littoral Fishes: 33–69.
  16. ↑ Perriere, C.; Goudey-Perriere, F. (January 1989). "Origin and function of supporting cells in the venom glands of the lesser weeverfish (Trachinus vipera)". Toxicon. 27 (3): 287–295. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(89)90176-1. PMID   2728021.
  17. 1 2 Chhatwal, Ingeborg; Dreyer, Florian (January 1992). "Isolation and characterization of dracotoxin from the venom of the greater weever fish Trachinus draco". Toxicon. 30 (1): 87–93. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(92)90504-X. PMID   1595081.
  18. 1 2 Chhatwal, I; Dreyer, F (January 1992). "Biological properties of a crude venom extract from the greater weever fish Trachinus draco". Toxicon. 30 (1): 77–85. doi:10.1016/0041-0101(92)90503-w. PMID   1375787.
  19. ↑ HAAVALDSEN, R.; FONNUM, F. (20 July 1963). "Weever Venom". Nature. 199 (4890): 286–287. Bibcode:1963Natur.199..286H. doi:10.1038/199286a0. PMID   14076693. S2CID   4191348.
  20. 1 2 3 4 HALPERN, P.; SORKINE, P.; RASKIN, Y. (September 2002). "Envenomation by Trachinus draco in the eastern Mediterranean". European Journal of Emergency Medicine. 9 (3): 274–277. doi:10.1097/00063110-200209000-00014. PMID   12394628.
  21. ↑ Church, Jarrod E.; Hodgson, Wayne C. (August 2002). "The pharmacological activity of fish venoms". Toxicon. 40 (8): 1083–1093. doi:10.1016/S0041-0101(02)00126-5. PMID   12165309.
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