Human rights in Norway

Last updated

Human rights in Norway protect the fundamental rights of all persons within the Kingdom of Norway. These rights are safeguarded by Chapter E of the Constitution of Norway or Kongeriket Norges Grunnlov , as well as the ratification of various international treaties facilitated by the United Nations. The country maintains a dedicated commitment to human rights and was the second country to ratify the European Convention on Human Rights. [1]

Contents

Although Norway is regarded as relatively proactive in human rights matters, ranking first in the UN Development Program's Human Development Index for 12 of the last 15 years, human rights issues still arise. [2] The most prevalent issue in recent history is the struggle for land rights by the indigenous Sami people, under the threat of the Norwegian government exploiting the Sápmi region for natural resources. [3]

Sources of human rights

The Constitution of Norway

Section E. of the Norwegian Constitution pertains specifically to the maintenance of human rights of all people within the state of Norway. Individual rights are granted by various articles, most notably:

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)

Eleanor Roosevelt holding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights Eleanor Roosevelt and United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights in Spanish 09-2456M original.jpg
Eleanor Roosevelt holding the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

After the barbarities of World War 2, an international declaration was constructed to guarantee the rights of all humans on earth. Proclaimed by the newly constructed United Nations, at the General Assembly in Paris on the 10th of December, 1948, the declaration signposted 30 key human rights that should be universally granted to every human. [4] Although the Declaration is not legally binding in itself, subsequent international treaties, amendments to constitutions, and economic agreements affirm the declaration.

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is seen as the precursor to the International Bill of Human Rights, which consists of the UDHR, as well as the International Covenant of Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR, 1966) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR, 1996). This extension of the UDHR provided a legal reason for states to ensure the maintenance of human rights, in addition to the moral obligation established by the initial proclamation of the UDHR in 1948. [5]

International Treaties

As well as the UDHR, and the International Bill of Human Rights, Norway has ratified a variety of other international treaties focused on the maintenance of human rights:, those include: [1]

Civil and political rights

These liberties are granted by the Constitution of Norway:

Judicial rights

A variety of judicial rights are ensured under sections D and E of the Norwegian constitution. [6] The constitution prohibits arbitrary arrest, and supports the detainee should they desire to challenge the lawfulness of an arrest. All persons within the state of Norway are eligible for a fair and public trial, where publicly funded access to a legal counsel of their choice is ensured. An independent and impartial judiciary is required under Norwegian law. [7]

Capital punishment

Since 1948, there have been no instances of capital punishment in Norway. Any form of capital punishment was constitutionally abolished in 2014. [8] The death sentence ended during peacetime in 1905, with the last peacetime execution being carried out in 1876. The most recent execution was of a Nazi collaborator in 1948. Not only is Norway's stance on capital punishment guarded by the constitution, but it is also ratified by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1972) and the Second Optional Protocol (1991). [8]

Prison conditions

Interior of Halden Prison in Halden, Norway Interior in Halden prison.jpg
Interior of Halden Prison in Halden, Norway

The Norwegian prison system is praised as an exceptional model with extraordinarily low re-offending rates. [9] The Norwegian model is focused on rehabilitation, rather than retribution, whereby the prison officers' main role is to mentor, not punish. Inside a Norwegian prison, human rights are guaranteed for the prisoners, with healthy food, exercise, and standard living conditions guaranteed. Guards and prisoners occupy the same spaces, eat the same meals, and participate in activities together, allowing personal bonds to develop to aid rehabilitation of the prisoners. This strategy is known as 'dynamic security'. [9]

Are Hodiel, the Governor of Halden Prison, the second largest prison in Norway, explains that "In Norway, the punishment is to take away someone's liberty. The other rights stay". [9] A spot at Halden Prison costs approximately £98,000 per inmate per year. This is expensive in comparison to the United Kingdom, where places cost between £40,000 and £59,000.

Religious freedoms

Religions in Norway (31.12.2018) [10] [11] [12]

   Lutheran Church (69.91%)
   Catholic Church (3.02%)
  Other Christian denominations (2.21%)
   Islam (3.29%)
   Secular Humanism (1.81%)
   Unaffiliated (17.36%)
  Other (2.4%)

The Norwegian Constitution states that "Our values will remain our Christian and humanistic heritage", and that "The King shall at all times profess the Evangelical-Lutheran religion". Yet Norway maintains complete freedom of religion for all inhabitants. This right is also included in the Norwegian constitution, which says that "All inhabitants of the realm shall have the right to free exercise of their religion." [6]

The State has, and continues to, support the Church of Norway, which is an Evangelical-Lutheran church that follows the religion professed by the King of Norway. The religious community of Norway primarily belongs to the Church of Norway, yet there remain small populations of Muslims and Catholics. The second largest religious group in Norway is unaffiliated. [7]

As well as funding the Church of Norway, the Norwegian government provides funding to over 800 religious groups, in an effort to maintain diversity and reduce religious discrimination. Religious persecution is punishable by law, through hefty fines and prison sentences of up to 6 months. Within Norway, complaints of religious discrimination are handled by the Equality and Anti-discrimination Ombudsman (LDO), who is chosen by the government to serve a six-year term. [7] Although the office is funded by the Norwegian government, it maintains its own autonomy and independence.

Protection of refugees

Sylvi Listhaug - the first Norwegian Minister for Immigration Sylvi Listhaug Sentralbanksjefens arstale 2018 (185726).jpg
Sylvi Listhaug - the first Norwegian Minister for Immigration

The Norwegian Law facilitates permission of asylum and refuge to peoples displaced from their home countries. Whilst their refugee applications status is under review, asylum seekers are allowed to seek and obtain work, should they meet three main criteria. These criteria are that asylum seekers must have proof of identity; have a document demonstrating that they will most likely receive asylum; and be part of an "integration" program. [7] Norway has agreed to the EU's Dublin III regulation, which authorises the transfer of asylum seekers to other European countries who are responsible for adjudicating the case.

Recently, there has been criticism of the Norwegian government's lack of dedication to accepting refugees. In 2017, Norway accepted 30,000 refugees, whilst neighbouring country Sweden took in 160,000. Sylvi Listhaug, Norway's first immigration minister, cited the low acceptance of refugees as "a big challenge to integrate [...] to make sure they respect Norwegian values". [13]

Economic, social, and cultural rights

Women's rights

A Sami woman, the Sami people are the Indigenous inhabitants of Norway Skolt Sami woman.jpg
A Sami woman, the Sami people are the Indigenous inhabitants of Norway

The prohibition of discrimination against women is guarded by law. Penalties can extend to up to 21 years' incarceration for crimes such as rape. Issues including domestic violence and sexual harassment continue to remain a problem in Norwegian society. 27% of women experience physical and/or sexual violence from an intimate partner within their lifetime, and 6% in the last 12 months. [14] The conviction rate for domestic violence sits at 10%, causing criticisms by institutions such as the Oslo Crisis Centre that the government is not doing enough to reduce rates of gender-based violence. [7]

The National Coordination Unit of Victims of Human Trafficking (KOM) was initiated to reduce the number of women who fall victim to sex trafficking within Norway, in an effort by the Norwegian government to address the rising number of sex trafficking victims. Despite Norway's welcomed efforts by the UN, the number of victims of sex trafficking in Norway continues to rise, increasing from 203 to 292 victims from 2007 to 2009. [14]

The Norwegian Government launched a plan in 2016 to reduce violence against women, called the Action Plan for Women's Rights and Gender Equality in Foreign and Development Policy 2016–2020. [15] The plan has five main goals which Norway aims to promote to reduce discrimination and violence against women. The five aims are:

  1. Inclusive and equitable quality education for all girls and boys
  2. Women's equal participation in political life
  3. Full economic rights for women and equal opportunities for women to participate in the labor market
  4. The elimination of violence and harmful practices against girls and women
  5. Sexual and reproductive health and rights for girls and women [15]

In addition, government programs have been implemented to reduce rates of domestic violence in Norway, including the appointment for a dedicated domestic violence coordinator at all police districts. There are also over 47 publicly-funded shelters, and 5, 24-hour hotlines managed by the Norwegian government. [7]

Children's rights

Children of Norway are protected by the Convention on the Rights of the Child. Issues of child abuse and mistreatment are primarily investigated by the Ombudsman for Children in Norway. [16] Citizenship within Norway is granted through parents; children born in Norway do not automatically become citizens. [7] A recent Amnesty International report raises concern that unaccompanied minors arriving on Norwegian soil are taken into unaccompanied minor centres that have living conditions not on par with human rights standards. [16]

Assault against children in punishable under Norwegian law, yet 2017 ended with over 48,000 instances of documented child abuse. [7] A Norwegian survey registered that between 5 - 10% of children in Norway had experienced some form of physical and/or sexual violence in their lifetime. In 2018, a 26-year-old man was charged with the sexual assaults of over 300 underage boys. Police described the football-referee's crimes as "Norway's biggest ever sexual abuse case". [17]

The European Court of Human Rights ruled that Norway, which disproportionately removes children of immigrant background and argues it gives them a better future, was mistaking poverty for neglect and that there are other ways to help destitute children. [18] [19]

Indigenous rights

A Sami family Saami Family 1900.jpg
A Sami family

The Sami people are the inhabitants of the northernmost parts of Norway, Finland, Sweden, and the Kola Peninsula of Russia. [20] Despite the bureaucratic boundaries existing between the four states, the Sami people continue to operate as a single group, bonded through their rich cultural and linguistic connections. [3] Despite there being over 50,000 people living and identifying as a Sami person, there is no official state registry defining the Sami people as Indigenous in Norway.

Various pieces of legislation have been enacted to protect the cultural and linguistic heritage of the Sami people. The Norwegian Sami Act (1987) provided a legal and verified definition of a Sami, as someone who 'has Sami as a first language, or whose father or mother or one of whose grandparents has or had Sami as a first language, and who considers themselves a Sami". [21] 1980 saw the creation of the Sami Rights Commission, which was enacted to address the economic and political issues of the Sami people. It was this that led to the creation of the Sameting, also known as the Norwegian Sami Assembly. This body mainly serves to ensure the rights of the Sami people, and sustain Norway's commitment to accomplish their international obligations. [21]

In today's world, the Sami people hold a large amount of autonomy, and have their own parliament to which they elect, called the Samediggi. [7] After years of struggle, their autonomy is also protected by the Norwegian constitution, which states that "the authorities of the state shall create conditions enabling the Sami people to preserve and develop its language, culture and way of life". [6]

LGBT+ rights

There exists legislation designed to prohibit discrimination based on sexual orientation and gender identity, in the broad scope of housing, employment, citizenship, and access to services provided by the government. Despite this, targeted violence towards transgender individuals is still not considered a hate crime within Norwegian legislation. The Norwegian Association of Gender and Sexual Diversity reported repeated concern about the lack of disclosure of sexual orientation as a reason for hate crimes. The government is attempting to address these concerns through more thorough and consistent training and education for police on LGBT+ discrimination. [7]

Disability rights

The US Department of State reports that there was effective enforcement of laws which prohibit discrimination against the disabled community within Norway. [7]

Anti-semitism

There is only a very small Jewish population in Norway, about 1400, half of which belong to Jewish congregations. In an effort to reduce antisemitism, the Norwegian government launched an 'Action Plan against Antisemitism 2016 - 2020', of which the four main points are:

  1. Antisemitism holds a separate category of hate crime in police statistics
  2. Education about antisemitism is integrated into all schools
  3. Increased funding for Jewish museums and cultural institutions
  4. Research into antisemitism and Jewish life is also funded [7]

Human rights abuses

Current criticism

The UN Universal Periodic Review describes statuses of human rights issues in Norway. [22] In 2015, a Council of Europe Commissioner for Human Rights advocated for more policies advancing the empowerment of people with disabilities and full inclusion of Roma. [23] Norway's parliament has refused to sign the UN Declaration on the Rights of Disabled Persons, and there are several reports of the human rights of various groups of disabled people not being fully recognized. [ better source needed ] Norway has been criticized for not judicially defining rape on the basis of lack of consent. [24] [ needs update ]

Land rights of the Sami people

The increased demand for natural resources in recent times has led to social conflict between the Sami people and the local communities of Norway. The construction of infrastructure such as buildings, roads, mines, and dams, all preside primarily in areas inhabited by the Sami people. This has led to contention between the land rights of the Sami people, and the employment and development opportunities that would arise from these projects for local communities. [3]

The traditional landowner rights granted to the Sami people under the Norwegian legislation allow for their rejection of development proposals should it prohibit their ability to pursue their traditional livelihoods. As well as the Norwegian constitution, this right is guaranteed via various multilateral treaties, including the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, and the United Nations Declaration of the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Standards established via institutions such as the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and the Tribal People's Convention explain that in order for development on Indigenous land, such as the creation of infrastructure on Sami territory, must have the 'free, prior, and informed consent' of the party involved. [3]

In response to the land rights crisis in Northern Norway, the Norwegian government published the Finnmark Act of 2005, which provided partial protection of the Sami land in Finnmark Country. The act elucidated that ownership of land and natural resources would be changed from state ownership to local ownership, meaning that Finnmark Estate owned its own land. The Special Rapporteur of the United Nations provided a report praising the Norwegian response to the land rights crisis. [3] 61°N8°E / 61°N 8°E / 61; 8

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</span> Declaration adopted in 1948 by the UN General Assembly

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) is an international document adopted by the United Nations General Assembly that enshrines the rights and freedoms of all human beings. Drafted by a UN committee chaired by Eleanor Roosevelt, it was accepted by the General Assembly as Resolution 217 during its third session on 10 December 1948 at the Palais de Chaillot in Paris, France. Of the 58 members of the United Nations at the time, 48 voted in favour, none against, eight abstained, and two did not vote.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</span> Treaty adopted by United Nations General Assembly in 1965

The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) is a multilateral treaty that commits nations to respect the civil and political rights of individuals, including the right to life, freedom of religion, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, electoral rights and rights to due process and a fair trial. It was adopted by United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2200A (XXI) on 16 December 1966 and entered into force on 23 March 1976 after its thirty-fifth ratification or accession. As of June 2022, the Covenant has 173 parties and six more signatories without ratification, most notably the People's Republic of China and Cuba; North Korea is the only state that has tried to withdraw.

Economic, social and cultural rights (ESCR) are socio-economic human rights, such as the right to education, right to housing, right to an adequate standard of living, right to health, victims' rights and the right to science and culture. Economic, social and cultural rights are recognised and protected in international and regional human rights instruments. Member states have a legal obligation to respect, protect and fulfil economic, social and cultural rights and are expected to take "progressive action" towards their fulfilment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Paraguay</span>

Technically speaking, Paraguayan law prohibits discrimination on grounds of gender, race, language, disability, or social status, but there is nonetheless widespread discrimination.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Switzerland</span> Overview of the observance of human rights in Switzerland

Human rights are largely respected in Switzerland, one of Europe's oldest democracies. Switzerland is often at or near the top in international rankings of civil liberties and political rights observance. Switzerland places human rights at the core of the nation's value system, as represented in its Federal Constitution. As described in its FDFA's Foreign Policy Strategy 2016-2019, the promotion of peace, mutual respect, equality and non-discrimination are central to the country's foreign relations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in the Middle East</span> Humans rights situation since World War II

Human rights in the Middle East have been shaped by the legal and political development of international human rights law after the Second World War, and their application to the Middle East. The 2004 United Nations Arab Human Development Report (AHDR) claimed that although Arab-Islamic tradition does hold unique importance for ideas of human welfare, History has proven that "they were not sufficiently prevalent in society to foster a culture based on a political contract, and allow for the legitimacy of differences of opinion, dialogue and transfer of power." Issues of the validity of democracy in the region and human rights are at the very centre of the challenges facing Middle Eastern society today.

Human rights in Muslim-majority countries have been a subject of controversy for many decades. International non-governmental organizations (INGOs) such as Amnesty International (AI) and Human Rights Watch (HRW) consistently find human rights violations in Muslim-majority countries. Amongst the human rights issues that are frequently under the spotlight are LGBT rights, the right to consensual sex outside of marriage, freedom of speech and political opinion. The issue of women's rights is also the subject of fierce debate.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Liechtenstein</span>

Liechtenstein, a multiparty constitutional monarchy with a unicameral parliament and a government chosen by the reigning prince at its direction, is a prosperous and free country that is generally considered to have an excellent human-rights record.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Benin</span>

The human-rights situation in Benin is considered to be generally above average for sub-Saharan Africa.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in the Central African Republic</span>

The Central African Republic, which the United Nations High Commissioner has described as undergoing "the most neglected crisis in the world", has an extremely poor human rights record. It has been designated 'Not Free' by Freedom House from 1972 to 1990, in 2002 and 2003, and from 2014 to the present day. It was rated 'Partly Free' from 1991 to 2001 and from 2004 to 2013. On the United Nations Human Development Index, it ranks 179 out of 187 countries. Between 1988 and 2008, life expectancy decreased from 49 years to 47.7 years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Burundi</span>

In 2022, Freedom House rated Burundi's human rights at 14 out 100.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Ghana</span>

Human rights are "rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled". Proponents of the concept usually assert that everyone is endowed with certain entitlements merely by reason of being human.

Tuvalu is a small island nation in the South Pacific, located North of Fiji and North West of Samoa. The population at the 2012 census was 10,837. Tuvalu has a written constitution which includes a statement of rights influenced by the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the European Convention on Human Rights. While most human rights in Tuvalu are respected, areas of concern include women’s rights and freedom of belief, as well as diminishing access to human rights in the face of global warming. The latter has played a major role in the implementation of human rights actions in Tuvalu given its geographical vulnerability and scarce resources.

The right to sexuality incorporates the right to express one's sexuality and to be free from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation. Specifically, it relates to the human rights of people of diverse sexual orientations, including lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people, and the protection of those rights, although it is equally applicable to heterosexuality. The right to sexuality and freedom from discrimination on the grounds of sexual orientation is based on the universality of human rights and the inalienable nature of rights belonging to every person by virtue of being human.

The Republic of Uruguay is located in South America, between Argentina, Brazil and the South Atlantic Ocean, with a population of 3,332,972. Uruguay gained independence and sovereignty from Spain in 1828 and has full control over its internal and external affairs. From 1973 to 1985 Uruguay was governed by a civil-military dictatorship which committed numerous human rights abuses.

The Federated States of Micronesia is a United States Associated State consisting of 4 states across the Western Pacific Ocean. The estimated population in 2015 was 105,216. Formerly the FSM was a part of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (TTPI) but in 1979 formed its own constitutional government. FSM has a written constitution which took effect in 1979 and has been amended only once in 1990. By virtue of membership in the United Nations, the FSM abides by the UN Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). Key human rights concerns in FSM include judicial delays, government corruption, discrimination against women, domestic violence and child neglect.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Denmark</span>

Human rights in the Kingdom of Denmark are protected by the state's Constitution of the Realm (Danmarks Riges Grundlov); applying equally in Denmark proper, Greenland and the Faroe Islands, and through the ratification of international human rights treaties. Denmark has held a significant role in the adoption of both the European Convention on Human Rights and in the establishment of the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR). In 1987, the Kingdom Parliament (Folketinget) established a national human rights institution, the Danish Centre of Human Rights, now the Danish Institute for Human Rights.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Portugal</span> Human right laws in Portugal

Portugal is generally considered as successful in upholding the civil liberties and protecting the human rights of its citizens. Portugal has proved to be determined in promoting and respecting human rights at an international and national level. The country's minister of Justice as of September 2018, Francisca Van Dunem, said that Portugal has had "a good track record" on human rights but violations still do persist.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human rights in Suriname</span>

Human rights in Suriname are currently recognised under the Constitution of the Republic of Suriname of 1987. Suriname is a constitutional democracy with a president elected by the unicameral National Assembly. The National Assembly underwent elections in 2020, electing Chan Santokhi as president. The National Assembly has a commission pertaining to issues regarding the country's human rights. The Human Rights Office of the Ministry of Justice and Police is responsible for advising the government on regional and international proceedings against the state concerning human rights. Human rights in Suriname is periodically reviewed by the United Nations Human Rights Committee (UNHRC), on which it is often believed the level of human rights do not yet meet international standards.

Human rights in Slovakia are governed by the laws of Slovakia and overseen by international organizations such as the Council of Europe.

References

  1. 1 2 Rosas, Allan (1986). "Nordic Human Rights Policies". Current Research on Peace and Violence. 9 (4): 167–192. JSTOR   40725044.
  2. ↑ Jones, Ann (2016-01-28). "After I Lived in Norway, America Felt Backward. Here's Why". ISSN   0027-8378 . Retrieved 2020-01-30.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Refugees, United Nations High Commissioner for. "Refworld | Report of the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples on the human rights situation of the Sami people in the Sápmi region of Norway, Sweden and Finland". Refworld. Retrieved 2020-01-30.
  4. 1 2 "Universal Declaration of Human Rights". www.un.org. 2015-10-06. Retrieved 2020-02-06.
  5. ↑ General Assembly of the United Nations (1948). "Fact Sheet No.2 (Rev. 1), The International Bill of Human Rights" (PDF). United Nations.
  6. 1 2 3 "The Constitution of the Kingdom of Norway - - Lovdata". lovdata.no. Retrieved 2020-01-30.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. "Norway 2018 Human Rights Report" (PDF).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. 1 2 "Norway and the Death Penalty - Campaign for the Abolition of the Death Penalty (ADP)". www.pgaction.org. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  9. 1 2 3 "How Norway turns criminals into good neighbours". BBC News. 2019-07-07. Retrieved 2020-02-05.
  10. ↑ "Church of Norway".
  11. ↑ "Religious communities and life stance communities".
  12. ↑ "Religious communities and life stance communities".
  13. ↑ "Norway's tough-love approach to the refugee crisis". The Spectator. 2017-11-25. Retrieved 2020-02-06.
  14. 1 2 "Norway". evaw-global-database.unwomen.org. Retrieved 2020-02-06.
  15. 1 2 Affairs, Ministry of Foreign (2019-01-04). "Women's rights and gender equality". Government.no. Retrieved 2020-02-06.
  16. 1 2 "Children of Norway". Humanium. Retrieved 2020-02-07.
  17. ↑ "Man held over sexual assaults on 300 boys". BBC News. 2018-11-21. Retrieved 2020-02-07.
  18. ↑ "Forced Adoption Case Against Norway Hits European Rights Court". sourthousenews. 27 January 2021.
  19. ↑ Whewell, Tim (3 August 2018). "Norway's hidden scandal". BBC News. Retrieved 2 March 2023.
  20. ↑ "Sami | People, History, & Lifestyle". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-02-07.
  21. 1 2 "Sami". Minority Rights Group. Retrieved 2020-02-07.
  22. ↑ "National report submitted in accordance with paragraph 5 of the annex to Human Rights Council resolution 16/21 - Norway" (PDF). United Nations Human Rights Council. Thirty-third session. 2019-05-17 – via United Nations General Assembly.
  23. ↑ "Norway: people with disabilities and Roma need more attention". Council of Europe. 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2021-12-21.
  24. ↑ "Nordic countries do not define rape on the basis of lack of consent". Amnesty International. 2019-04-03. Retrieved 2021-12-18.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.