Singapore has utilized extensive land reclamation to expand beyond its original geographical borders.
The reclamation of land from surrounding waters is used in Singapore to expand the city-state's limited area of usable, natural land. Land reclamation is most simply done by adding material such as rocks, soil and cement to an area of water; alternatively, submerged wetlands or similar biomes can be drained.
In Singapore, the former has been the most common method until recently, with sand the predominant material used. Due to a global shortage and restricted supply of the required type of sand (river and beach sand, not desert sand), Singapore has switched to polders for reclamation since 2016 — a method from the Netherlands in which an area is surrounded by a dyke and pumped dry to reclaim the land.
Land reclamation allows for increased development and urbanization,[1] and in addition to Singapore has been similarly useful to Hong Kong and Macau. Each of these is a small coastal territory restrained by its geographical boundaries, and thus traditionally limited by the ocean's reach. The use of land reclamation allows these territories to expand outwards by recovering land from the sea. At just 719km2 (278sqmi), the entire country of Singapore is smaller than New York City. As such, the Singaporean government has used land reclamation to supplement Singapore's available commercial, residential, industrial, and governmental properties (military and official buildings). Land reclamation in Singapore also allows for the preservation of local historic and cultural communities, as building pressures are reduced by the addition of reclaimed land.[2] Land reclamation has been used in Singapore since the early 19th century, extensively so in this last half-century in response to the city-state's rapid economic growth.[3] In 1960, Singapore was home to fewer than two million people; that number had more than doubled by 2008, to almost four and a half million people.[4] To keep up with such an increase in population (as well as a concurrent surge in the country's economy and industrialization efforts), Singapore has increased its land mass by 22% since independence in 1965, with land continuously being set aside for future use.[5][6] Though Singapore's native population is no longer increasing as rapidly as it was in the mid-twentieth century, the city-state has experienced a continued influx in its foreign population,[7] resulting in a continued investment in land reclamation by the government. The government thus plans to expand the city-state by an additional 7-8% by 2030.[5]
History
Stamford Raffles's plan for the Town of Singapore, 1822.
The early phases of land reclamation began not long after Sir Stamford Raffles arrived in what would become modern Singapore in 1819. Raffles had come to the area with the goal of developing a British port to rival that of the Dutch, and though contemporary Singapore was the ideal location for a harbour, it was at the time only a small fishing village.[8][3] Converting this village into a significant trading centre required reorganization and better utilization of the land. After some alterations to his original plans, Raffles decided in 1822 that the commercial centre of his new port should be located on the south bank of the Singapore River, close to the river's mouth.[9] At that time, the south bank was largely uninhabited swamp, covered in mangrove trees and sprinkled with creeks.[9] Though Singapore's first British Resident, William Farquhar, expressed concerns about the cost and feasibility of reclaiming this land, it was eventually decided that the project was achievable.[9] The southwest bank of the river was found to be prone to flooding, so Raffles decided to dismantle a small hill (located in today's Raffles Place) and use the soil to raise and fill in the low-lying areas that would otherwise be affected by flooding.[9] The project began in the second half of 1822, and was completed in three to four months (largely by Chinese, Malay, and Indian labourers).[9] The land was broken up into lots, which were sold off to commercial investors.[9]
After this first land reclamation project, there were no significant alterations to Singapore's geography until 1849, which brought the building of port facilities that became increasingly important after the establishment of the British Straits Settlements in 1826 and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, both of which allowed for improved connections between the city-state and Europe.[3]
After the turn of the century (particularly from 1919 to 1923), Singaporean land reclamation was primarily the result of a need for increased public utilities (such as roads and railways) and military coastal protection.[3] Such development was interrupted by World War II, when the Japanese occupied Singapore and directed focus away from an improved Singapore and towards an extended Japanese culture. There was thus a lull in industrialization in Singapore during this period, which continued throughout the 1950s and early 1960s (during which time Singapore experienced extensive political change) until the city-state's participation in the founding of Malaysia in 1963.[3] As part of Malaysia and continuing after independence in 1965, Singapore benefitted from economic development programs, which both enabled and required significant land reclamation projects.[3] Rapidly increasing demand for industrial, infrastructural, commercial, and residential land resulted in projects that reclaimed hundreds of hectares (acres) at a time.[3] The Jurong Industrial Estate began development in the early 1960s to meet industrial land needs, and by 1968 already housed 153 factories, with another 46 under construction. The original landscape of the region was greatly changed and is now restricted to the areas around the Pandan Reservoir and Sungei Pandan. Also in the early 1960s, Singapore's central business district was extended into land reclaimed from the sea.[3] Post-war industrialization and land reclamation transformed Singapore's weak economy.
Modern Singapore's Marina Bay area, a development made possible through land reclamation
In 1981, Singapore Changi Airport opened after the clearing of roughly 2km2 (0.8sqmi) of swampland and the introduction of over 52,000,000m3 (68,000,000cuyd) of land- and seafill. As Changi Airport maintains a policy of continual development in preparation for the future, a third airport terminal was planned from the beginning, and was opened on January 1, 2007.
By 1991, 10% of Singapore was reclaimed land.[3] By that year, industrial land on Singapore's mainland had again grown scarce, and it was decided that seven islets south of Jurong would be merged to form one large island, Jurong Island. By 2008, Singapore was one of the top three oil trading and refining hubs globally.[10] The necessary facilities for such an involvement in the oil industry require a very large amount of space, and today, Singapore's facilities are housed almost entirely on Jurong Island and the Jurong Industrial Estates.[10]
In 1992, the Marina Centre and Marina South land reclamation projects were completed after their commission in the late 1970s, encompassing 360ha (890 acres) of waterfront development. These projects involved the removal of the Telok Ayer Basin and Inner Roads; the mouth of the Singapore River was also rerouted to flow into Marina Bay rather than directly into the sea. The Marina Bay reclamation projects added significant waterside land adjacent to Singapore's central business district, creating prime real estate that is used for commercial, residential, hotel, and entertainment purposes today.
Singapore continues to develop and expand, with plans to expand the city's land area by an additional 7-8% of reclaimed land by 2030.[11]
Recent difficulties with sand mining
Reclamation of submerged land requires a substance to fill in the reclaimed area. Given the shallow depth of the waters surrounding much of Singapore, sand has generally been seen as the best option for this process.[12] Raffles used soil from a razed hill to raise the southwest bank of the Singapore River, but sand is the predominant choice.[13] In fact, Singapore has used so much sand that it has run out of its own, and imports sand from surrounding areas in order to meet its land reclamation needs.[5] Though industries around the world depend on sand, the United Nations Environment Programme found Singapore to be the largest importer of sand worldwide in 2014.[5] In 2010 alone, Singapore imported 14.6 million tons of sand.[13]
In recent years, however, sources of sand have become more scarce. In 1997, Malaysia announced a ban on the export of sand,[13] yet Malaysian media continue to report rampant smuggling of sand into Singapore, leading then former Prime Minister Mahathir Mohamad to protest that these corrupt sand miners were "digging Malaysia and giving her to other people".[13]
A sand mining boat dredges Cambodia's Tatai River.
In 2007, Indonesia enacted a ban against exporting sand specifically to Singapore.[13] This ban followed tensions between Singapore and Indonesia regarding islands lying between the two countries: sand miners had reportedly all but demolished these islands.[13] In 2007, more than 90% of Singapore's imported sand had come from Indonesia.[14] The ban resulted in an increase in construction costs in Singapore as well as the need to find new sources of sand, which has become increasingly difficult as more neighbouring countries institute their own bans and regulations regarding the export of sand.[14] In 2009, Vietnam instituted its own ban against the export of sand to Singapore,[15] followed the same year by Cambodia, although that country's prohibition was less all-encompassing: though sand from some seabeds could still be exported, river sand could no longer be dredged and distributed.[13] More recently, however, certain rivers that receive replenishments of sand naturally due to their proximity to seawater have been made exempt from this ban.[13] In spite of these restrictions, Cambodia, which provided just 25% of Singapore's sand imports in 2010, is now its primary source of sand. This increase has dramatically changed local ecosystems.[13] After the dredging of Cambodia's Tatai River (exempt from the ban) began in 2010, locals saw an estimated 85% reduction in the catch of fish, crab, and lobsters; tourist numbers have similarly decreased as construction and noise have surged.[13] People living near the river have petitioned for an end to sand mining there.[13] Large-scale damage has been seen throughout Koh Kong Province as a result of this dredging.[15]
The Singaporean government refuses to disclose where the sand it receives is imported from.[15] The Ministry of National Development has said that the government buys sand from "a diverse range of approved sources", but maintains that further details are not public information.[15]
Starting in November 2016, Singapore has started to use a different land reclamation method, the polder development method, which should lessen its reliance on sand for land reclamation.[14] Used by the Netherlands for many years, this method involves building a wall to keep out seawater from a low-lying tract of land, known as a polder, while drains and/or pumps control water levels.[14] It is to be used first on the northwestern tip of Pulau Tekong, a future military training base which will be expanded by 810ha (2,000 acres).[14]
Controversy with Malaysia
In 2003, Singapore received complaints from Malaysia over land reclamation projects at either end of the Straits of Johor, which separate the two countries.[5] Malaysia claimed that Singapore's plans infringed on Malaysian dominion and were detrimental to both the environment and the livelihoods of local fishermen,[5] and legally challenged Singapore under the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea.[5] The dispute was settled after arbitration.[5]
More recently, Singapore has issued its own complaints against Malaysia regarding the latter's two land reclamation projects in the Straits of Johore. One project would involve the creation and linkage of four islands within the strait, creating a new metropolis called Forest City,[5] which Malaysia plans to advertise as a garden oasis, with buildings covered by greenery and an impressive expanse of public transport. Progress on the project came to a halt after Singapore protested against its construction in 2014, but the Malaysian government reportedly approved a scaled-down version of the project in January 2015.[5]
Environmental consequences
Singapore's industrialisation (particularly in terms of coastal development) and land reclamation projects have resulted in the extensive loss of marine habitats along the city-state's shores.[16] The majority of Singapore's southern coast has been altered through the process of land reclamation, as have large areas of the northeastern coast.[16] Many offshore islands have been changed, often through the filling of waters between small islands in order to create cohesive landmasses.[16]
Such development has led to the loss of 95% of Singapore's mangroves.[17] When Stamford Raffles arrived in Singapore in 1819, the land was largely mangrove swamp; today, mangrove cover accounts for less than 0.5% of Singapore's total land area.[18][19] This loss has greatly diminished the beneficial effects of mangroves, which include protection against erosion and reduction in organic pollution,[20] both of which serve to ameliorate coastal water quality.[20]
Singapore has also suffered an enormous loss in coral reefs as the result of extensive land and coastal development.[17] Prior to the land reclamation of the last several decades, Singapore's coral reefs covered an estimated 100km2 (39sqmi).[19] By 2002, that number had dropped to 54km2 (21sqmi).[19] Estimates are that up to 60% of the habitat is no longer sustainable.[19] Since coral reef monitoring was first instigated in the late 1980s, a clear overall decline in live coral cover has been noted, as has a decline in the depths at which corals thrive.[21] Fortunately, though there have been limited extinctions of local species, overall coral reef diversity has not diminished: the main loss has instead been a general, relatively equal decrease in the population abundance of each species.[21] Coral reefs are valued for their work towards carbon sequestration and shore protection (particularly in the dispersal of wave energy), as well as for their contributions to fisheries production, ecotourism, and scientific research.[22]
Singapore has also seen the negative effects of industrialisation impact several other coastal and marine habitats, such as seagrass, seabed, and seashores, all of which have suffered loss or degradation similar to that of the mangroves and coral reefs.[17]
Though much harm has been done to Singapore's aquatic ecosystems as the result of land reclamation projects and expansive industrialisation, there has been more of an effort in recent years to accommodate and restore damaged environments.[23] Since the mid-1990s, more attention has been paid to environmental impact assessments (EIAs), which identify the potential ecological consequences of a given developmental venture as well as possible ways to lessen the environmental harm.[17] In the development of the Semakau Landfill, for example, an extensive EIA was carried out after the project's commission in 1999.[24] The assessment found that coral reefs and mangroves within the allotted 350ha (860 acres) project would be harmed,[25] and as a result plans were put in place to reforest the mangroves elsewhere, and sediment screens were installed to prevent silt from reaching reefs that would have otherwise been negatively affected.[25] EIAs are not, however, required by any legislature, and thus are not mandatory for land reclamation projects.[17] Yet the Singapore government has been increasingly open to public feedback regarding increased sustainability in future land projects.[23]
In terms of restoration efforts, nature activists and public authorities alike have been working more and more towards the strengthening of biotic communities.[23] Though Singapore has seen the extinction of more than 28% of native flora and fauna, it has also witnessed the introduction of foreign flora and fauna to its ecosystems, increasing the country's biodiversity. Efforts towards the development of nature reserves have also helped to protect local wildlife, over half of which is now present only in such reserves.
Manila Bay is a natural harbor that serves the Port of Manila, in the Philippines. Strategically located around the capital city of the Philippines, Manila Bay facilitated commerce and trade between the Philippines and its neighboring countries, becoming the gateway for socio-economic development even prior to Spanish occupation. With an area of 1,994 km2 (769.9 sq mi), and a coastline of 190 km (118.1 mi), Manila Bay is situated in the western part of Luzon and is bounded by Cavite and Metro Manila on the east, Bulacan and Pampanga on the north, and Bataan on the west and northwest. Manila Bay drains approximately 17,000 km2 (6,563.7 sq mi) of watershed area, with the Pampanga River contributing about 49% of the freshwater influx. With an average depth of 17 m (55.8 ft), it is estimated to have a total volume of 28.9 billion cubic meters. Entrance to the bay is 19 km (11.8 mi) wide and expands to a width of 48 km (29.8 mi). However, width of the bay varies from 22 km (13.7 mi) at its mouth and expanding to 60 km (37.3 mi) at its widest point.
Tioman Island is 32 kilometres off the east coast of Rompin District, Pahang, Malaysia. It is 39 kilometres long and 12 kilometres wide and has seven villages, the largest and most populous being Kampung Tekek on the central western coast. The densely forested island is sparsely inhabited, and is surrounded by numerous coral reefs, making it a popular scuba diving, snorkelling, and surfing spot. There are many resorts and chalets for tourists around the island, which has duty-free status.
The Johor Strait is an international strait in Southeast Asia, between Singapore and Peninsular Malaysia.
Jurong is a major geographical region located at the south-westernmost point of the West Region of Singapore. Although mostly vaguely defined, the region's extent roughly covers the planning areas of Jurong East, Jurong West, Boon Lay, and Pioneer, along with Jurong Island in the Western Islands cluster and the southernmost portions of the Western Water Catchment. Should it be described at its greatest historical extent, the region can also include present-day Bukit Batok and Tuas.
Jurong Island is an island located to the southwest of the main island of Singapore. It was formed from the amalgamation of seven offshore islands, the islands of Pulau Ayer Chawan, Pulau Ayer Merbau, Pulau Merlimau, Pulau Pesek, Pulau Pesek Kechil, Pulau Sakra, Pulau Seraya, Pulau Meskol, Pulau Mesemut Laut, Pulau Mesemut Darat and Anak Pulau. This was done through Singapore's land reclamation efforts. Land reclamation on Jurong Island was completed on 25 September 2009, 20 years earlier than scheduled. Pulau Buaya was joined to Jurong Island via reclamation in 2010. Jurong Island forms a land area of about 32 km2 (12 sq mi) from an initial area of less than 10 km2 (4 sq mi), and is the largest of Singapore's outlying islands.
An artificial island or man-made island is an island that has been constructed by humans rather than formed through natural processes. Other definitions may suggest that artificial islands are lands with the characteristics of human intervention in their format process, while others argue that artificial islands are created by expanding existing islets, constructing on existing reefs, or amalgamating several islets together. Although constructing artificial islands is not a modern phenomenon, there is no definite legal definition of it. Artificial islands may vary in size from small islets reclaimed solely to support a single pillar of a building or structure to those that support entire communities and cities. Archaeologists argue that such islands were created as far back as the Neolithic era. Early artificial islands included floating structures in still waters or wooden or megalithic structures erected in shallow waters.
Land reclamation, often known as reclamation, and also known as land fill, is the process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground, reclaimed land, or land fill.
Tuas is a planning area located within the West Region of Singapore. It is bounded by the Western Water Catchment to its north, Pioneer to its east and the Straits of Johor to its west. Tuas also shares a maritime boundary with the Western Islands planning area to its east.
Tanjong Chek Jawa is a cape and the name of its 100-hectare wetlands located on the south-eastern tip of Pulau Ubin, an island off the north-eastern coast of the main island of Singapore. Chek Jawa is among the last few places left in Singapore with a natural rocky shore.
The Nature Society (Singapore) (NSS) is a non-government, non-profit organisation centered towards the preservation and appreciation of Singapore's natural heritage, as well as that of the surrounding region. Run by volunteers, the NSS depends financially on its members' contributions as well as companies, institutions and individuals.
Pulau Semakau is located to the south of the main island of Singapore, off the Straits of Singapore. The Semakau Landfill is located on the eastern side of the island, and was created by the amalgamation of Pulau Sakeng, and "anchored" to Pulau Semakau. The Semakau Landfill is Singapore's first offshore landfill and now the only remaining landfill in Singapore.
Urban planning in Singapore is the direction of infrastructure development in Singapore. It is done through a three-tiered planning framework, consisting of a long-term plan to plot out Singapore's development over at least 50 years, a Master Plan for the medium term, and short-term plans, the first two of which are prepared by the Urban Redevelopment Authority (URA) and the last by multiple agencies.
Water supply and sanitation in Singapore are intricately linked to the historical development of Singapore. It is characterised by a number of outstanding achievements in a challenging environment with geographical limitations. Access to water in Singapore is universal, affordable, efficient and of high quality.
Change Alley is an air-conditioned shopping arcade in the financial district of Raffles Place in Downtown Core planning area of Singapore. Flanked by the skyscrapers Chevron House and Hitachi Tower, it is an alley that links Raffles Place and Collyer Quay. It was renovated to what it is today in 1989, replacing the old Change Alley whose history dates back as far as 1819.
Pulau Busing is a restricted-access island and a hub for oil shipping located off the southwestern coast of Singapore. The island is occupied by Tankstore Ltd, a petroleum storage company. Heavily industrialised, the island is home to oil and chemical storage facilities, at least one marine offshore terminal, and a fuel oil refinery.
Teban Gardens is a residential precinct located in Jurong East, Singapore. Immediately north of Pandan Reservoir, it comprises exclusively public housing built by the JTC Corporation and Housing and Development Board.
The fishing industry in the Maldives is the island's second main industry. According to national tradition in the words of former President Maumoon Abdul Gayoom, "Fishing is the lifeblood of our nation, it is inborn. From the soil on which we live, to the sea around us, it remains an integral part of our existence. Fishing, and our country and its people, [are] one and shall remain inseparable forever." The Maldives has an abundance of aquatic life and species of fish. Common are tuna, groupers, dolphin fish, barracuda, rainbow runner, trevally and squirrelfish and many more. Aside from being of essential importance to the economy, fishing is also a popular recreational activity in the Maldives, not only among locals but by tourists. The islands have numerous fishing resorts which cater for these activities.
Land reclamation is done in Monaco through a policy of building land in the sea with concrete blocks because land is very scarce, as the country is comparatively tiny, at 2.02 km2 (0.78 sq mi). To solve this problem and to continue economic development, for years the country has added to its total land area by reclaiming land from the sea.
Sand smuggling is the cross-border environmental crime of illegal transportation of often illegally extracted natural sand and gravel. While sand smuggling and illegal mining are global concerns, they are especially acute in Asia, where continuing urbanization and the region’s large construction boom are driving the increasing demand for sand. The consequences of excessive sand mining and smuggling, which are strongly connected, range from environmental degradation to geopolitical tension. Illegal sand smuggling and extraction, despite the importance of the resource, remain under-researched and for the most part hidden threats because they often occur in isolated places. The issue is rarely addressed in scientific research and policy forums. Instead, it is the media and non-governmental organizations that are at the forefront of exposing environmental crimes and actions of corruption in the sand industry.
Forest City is an integrated residential development and private town located in Iskandar Puteri, Johor, Malaysia. It is located in the southwestern part of Johor Bahru District, the second largest district in Malaysia by population. First announced in 2006 as a twenty-year investment project mostly financed by a consortium of mainland Chinese private real estate developers, pitched under the Belt and Road Initiative.
References
↑ R. Glaser, P. Haberzettl, and R. P. D. Walsh,"Land Reclamation in Singapore, Hong Kong, and Macau," GeoJournal (August 1991), accessed February 16, 2017.
↑ Tai-Chee Wong, Belinda Yuen, and Charles Goldblum, ed., Spatial Planning for a Sustainable Singapore (Springer Science + Business Media B.V., 2008), 26.
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