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The list below describes such skeletal movements as normally are possible in particular joints of the human body. Other animals have different degrees of movement at their respective joints; this is because of differences in positions of muscles and because structures peculiar to the bodies of humans and other species block motions unsuited to their anatomies.
| Movement | Muscles | Origin | Insertion |
|---|---|---|---|
| Flexion (150°–170°) | Anterior fibers of deltoid | Clavicle | Middle of lateral surface of shaft of humerus |
| Clavicular part of pectoralis major | Clavicle | Lateral lip of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Long head of biceps brachii | Supraglenoid tubercle of scapula | Tuberosity of radius, Deep fascia of forearm | |
| Short head of biceps brachii | Coracoid process of scapula | ||
| Coracobrachialis | Coracoid process | Medial aspect of shaft of humerus | |
| Extension (40°) | Posterior fibers of deltoid | Spine of scapula | Middle of lateral surface of shaft of humerus |
| Latissimus dorsi | Iliac crest, lumbar fascia, spines of lower six thoracic vertebrae, lower 3–4 ribs, inferior angle of scapula | Floor of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Teres major | Lateral border of scapula | Medial lip of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Abduction (160°–180°) | Middle fibers of deltoid | Acromion process of scapula | Middle of lateral surface of shaft of humerus |
| Supraspinatus | Supraspinous fossa of scapula | Greater tubercle of humerus | |
| Adduction (30°–40°) | Sternal part of pectoralis major | Sternum, upper six costal cartilages | Lateral lip of bicipital groove of humerus |
| Latissimus dorsi | Iliac crest, lumbar fascia, spines of lower six thoracic vertebrae, lower 3-4 ribs, inferior angle of scapula | Floor of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Teres major | Lower third of lateral border of scapula | Medial lip of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Teres minor | Upper two thirds of lateral border of scapula | Greater tubercle of humerus | |
| Lateral rotation (in abduction: 95°; in adduction: 70°) | Infraspinatus | Infraspinous fossa of scapula | Greater tubercle of humerus |
| Teres minor | Upper two thirds of lateral border of scapula | Greater tubercle of humerus | |
| Posterior fibers of deltoid | Spine of scapula | Middle of lateral surface of shaft of humerus | |
| Medial rotation (in abduction: 40°–50°; in adduction: 70°) | Subscapularis | Subscapular fossa | Lesser tubercle of humerus |
| Latissimus dorsi | Iliac crest, lumbar fascia, spines of lower 3-4 ribs, inferior angle of scapula | Floor of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Teres major | Lower third of lateral border of scapula | Medial lip of bicipital groove of humerus | |
| Anterior fibers of deltoid | Clavicle | Middle of lateral surface of shaft of humerus |
The major muscles involved in retraction include the rhomboid major muscle, rhomboid minor muscle and trapezius muscle, [2] [3] whereas the major muscles involved in protraction include the serratus anterior and pectoralis minor muscles. [4] [5]
| Scapula and clavicula | Abduction (Protraction) | Adduction (Retraction) |
| Depression | Elevation | |
| Rotation Upward (Superior Rotation) | Rotation Downward (Inferior Rotation) |
| Joint | From | To | Description |
|---|---|---|---|
| Humeroulnar joint | trochlear notch of the ulna | trochlea of humerus | Is a simple hinge-joint, and allows of movements of flexion and extension only. |
| Humeroradial joint | head of the radius | capitulum of the humerus | Is a ball-and-socket joint. |
| Superior radioulnar joint | head of the radius | radial notch of the ulna | In any position of flexion or extension, the radius, carrying the hand with it, can be rotated in it. This movement includespronation and supination. |
| Wrist & Midcarpals | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Adduction (Ulna Deviation) | Abduction (Radial Deviation) |
| Metacarpophalangeal | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Adduction | Abduction | |
| Interphalangeal | Flexion | Extension |
| Carpometacarpal (thumb) | Flexion | Extension |
| Adduction | Abduction | |
| Opposition | ||
| Metacarpophalangeal (thumb) | Flexion | Extension |
| Adduction | Abduction | |
| Interphalangeal (thumb) | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Neck (Atlantoccipital & Antlantoaxial) | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Lateral Flexion (Abduction) | Reduction (Adduction) | |
| Rotation |
| Cervical spine | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Lateral Flexion (Abduction) | Reduction (Adduction) | |
| Rotation | ||
| Thoracic spine | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Lateral Flexion (Abduction) | Reduction (Adduction) | |
| Rotation | ||
| Lumbar spine | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Lateral Flexion (Abduction) | Reduction (Adduction) | |
| Rotation |
| Hip (acetabulofemoral joint) | Flexion | Extension |
| Adduction | Abduction | |
| Transverse Adduction | Transverse Abduction | |
| Medial Rotation (Internal Rotation) | Lateral Rotation (External Rotation) |
| Knee | Flexion | Extension |
| Medial Rotation (Internal Rotation) | Lateral Rotation (External Rotation) |
| Ankle | Plantar Flexion | Dorsi Flexion |
| Intertarsal - (foot) | Inversion | Eversion |
| Plantarflexion |
| Metatarsophalangeal (toes) | Flexion | Extension / Hyperextension |
| Abduction | Adduction |
| Interphalangeal (toes) | Flexion | Extension |
The muscles tibialis anterior and tibialis posterior invert the foot. Some sources also state that the triceps surae and extensor hallucis longus invert. [6] : 123 Inversion occurs at the subtalar joint and transverse tarsal joint. [7]
Eversion of the foot occurs at the subtalar joint. The muscles involved in this include fibularis longus and fibularis brevis, which are innervated by the superficial fibular nerve. Some sources also state that the fibularis tertius everts. [6] : 108
Dorsiflexion of the foot: The muscles involved include those of the Anterior compartment of leg, specifically tibialis anterior muscle, extensor hallucis longus muscle, extensor digitorum longus muscle, and peroneus tertius. The range of motion for dorsiflexion indicated in the literature varies from 12.2 [8] to 18 [9] degrees. [10] Foot drop is a condition, that occurs when dorsiflexion is difficult for an individual who is walking.
Plantarflexion of the foot: Primary muscles for plantar flexion are situated in the Posterior compartment of leg, namely the superficial Gastrocnemius, Soleus and Plantaris (only weak participation), and the deep muscles Flexor hallucis longus, Flexor digitorum longus and Tibialis posterior. Muscles in the Lateral compartment of leg also weakly participate, namely the Fibularis longus and Fibularis brevis muscles. Those in the lateral compartment only have weak participation in plantar flexion though. The range of motion for plantar flexion is usually indicated in the literature as 30° to 40°, but sometimes also 50°. The nerves are primarily from the sacral spinal cord roots S1 and S2. Compression of S1 roots may result in weakness in plantarflexion; these nerves run from the lower back to the bottom of the foot. [ citation needed ]
Pronation at the forearm is a rotational movement at the radioulnar joint, or of the foot at the subtalar and talocalcaneonavicular joints. [11] [12] For the forearm, when standing in the anatomical position, pronation will move the palm of the hand from an anterior-facing position to a posterior-facing position without an associated movement at the shoulder joint). This corresponds to a counterclockwise twist for the right forearm and a clockwise twist for the left (when viewed superiorly). In the forearm, this action is performed by pronator quadratus and pronator teres muscle. Brachioradialis puts the forearm into a midpronated/supinated position from either full pronation or supination. For the foot, pronation will cause the sole of the foot to face more laterally than when standing in the anatomical position.
Pronation of the foot is a compound movement that combines abduction, eversion, and dorsiflexion. Regarding posture, a pronated foot is one in which the heel bone angles inward and the arch tends to collapse. Pronation is the motion of the inner and outer ball of the foot with the heel bone. [13] One is said to be "knock-kneed" if one has overly pronated feet. It flattens the arch as the foot strikes the ground in order to absorb shock when the heel hits the ground, and to assist in balance during mid-stance. If habits develop, this action can lead to foot pain as well as knee pain, shin splints, achilles tendinitis, posterior tibial tendinitis, piriformis syndrome, and plantar fasciitis.[ citation needed ].
The foot is an anatomical structure found in many vertebrates. It is the terminal portion of a limb which bears weight and allows locomotion. In many animals with feet, the foot is a separate organ at the terminal part of the leg made up of one or more segments or bones, generally including claws and/or nails.
The human leg is the entire lower limb of the human body, including the foot, thigh or sometimes even the hip or buttock region. The major bones of the leg are the femur, tibia, and adjacent fibula. The thigh is between the hip and knee, while the calf (rear) and shin (front) are between the knee and foot.
The sciatic nerve, also called the ischiadic nerve, is a large nerve in humans and other vertebrate animals which is the largest branch of the sacral plexus and runs alongside the hip joint and down the lower limb. It is the longest and widest single nerve in the human body, going from the top of the leg to the foot on the posterior aspect. The sciatic nerve has no cutaneous branches for the thigh. This nerve provides the connection to the nervous system for the skin of the lateral leg and the whole foot, the muscles of the back of the thigh, and those of the leg and foot. It is derived from spinal nerves L4 to S3. It contains fibers from both the anterior and posterior divisions of the lumbosacral plexus.
In human anatomy, the fibularis longus is a superficial muscle in the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to extend the foot downward away from the body at the ankle.
In the human body, the cuboid bone is one of the seven tarsal bones of the foot.
The ankle, or the talocrural region, or the jumping bone (informal) is the area where the foot and the leg meet. The ankle includes three joints: the ankle joint proper or talocrural joint, the subtalar joint, and the inferior tibiofibular joint. The movements produced at this joint are dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the foot. In common usage, the term ankle refers exclusively to the ankle region. In medical terminology, "ankle" can refer broadly to the region or specifically to the talocrural joint.
The extensor hallucis longus muscle is a thin skeletal muscle, situated between the tibialis anterior and the extensor digitorum longus. It extends the big toe and dorsiflects the foot. It also assists with foot eversion and inversion.
In humans and many other primates, the calcaneus or heel bone is a bone of the tarsus of the foot which constitutes the heel. In some other animals, it is the point of the hock.
In human anatomy, the fibularis brevis is a muscle that lies underneath the fibularis longus within the lateral compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to extend the foot downward away from the body at the ankle.
In human anatomy, the fibularis tertius is a muscle in the anterior compartment of the leg. It acts to tilt the sole of the foot away from the midline of the body (eversion) and to pull the foot upward toward the body (dorsiflexion).
The deep fibular nerve begins at the bifurcation of the common fibular nerve between the fibula and upper part of the fibularis longus, passes infero-medially, deep to the extensor digitorum longus, to the anterior surface of the interosseous membrane, and comes into relation with the anterior tibial artery above the middle of the leg; it then descends with the artery to the front of the ankle-joint, where it divides into a lateral and a medial terminal branch.
Motion, the process of movement, is described using specific anatomical terms. Motion includes movement of organs, joints, limbs, and specific sections of the body. The terminology used describes this motion according to its direction relative to the anatomical position of the body parts involved. Anatomists and others use a unified set of terms to describe most of the movements, although other, more specialized terms are necessary for describing unique movements such as those of the hands, feet, and eyes.
The sole is the bottom of the foot.
The inferior extensor retinaculum of the foot is a Y-shaped band placed in front of the ankle-joint, the stem of the Y being attached laterally to the upper surface of the calcaneus, in front of the depression for the interosseous talocalcaneal ligament; it is directed medialward as a double layer, one lamina passing in front of, and the other behind, the tendons of the peroneus tertius and extensor digitorum longus.
The fibularis muscles are a group of muscles in the lower leg.
The anterior compartment of the leg is a fascial compartment of the lower leg. It contains muscles that produce dorsiflexion and participate in inversion and eversion of the foot, as well as vascular and nervous elements, including the anterior tibial artery and veins and the deep fibular nerve.
The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to human anatomy:
In human anatomy, a brevis muscle derives its name from the Latin brevis meaning "short", and can refer to: