Lulu and Nana controversy

Last updated

Lulu (Chinese :露露) and Nana (Chinese :娜娜) are pseudonyms of twin Chinese girls born in October 2018 as the world's first germline genenome edited babies, the clinical experiment of which led to legal and ethical controversies with an indictment of the experimenter, He Jiankui. [1] News of their birth were made public on 25 November 2018. [2] [3] The girls' parents, an HIV-positive father and HIV-negative mother, were among the participants in a clinical project run by He Jiankui. The subjects were offered standard in vitro fertilization services and in addition, used CRISPR-Cas9, a technology for modifying DNA. Specifically, Lulu and Nana were modified of the CCR5 gene in their embryos that were generated, to attempt to confer genetic resistance to HIV. [4] The clinical project was conducted secretly until November 2018, when MIT Technology Review ran the story about the experiment upon which He Jiankui immediately announced the birth of Lulu and Nana on YouTube. [5] [6] He Jiankui has reported that the girls were born healthy. [7]

Contents

The reaction to He's actions was widespread criticism [8] [9] and included concern for the well-being of the girls. [4] [10] [11] Near the end of November, Chinese authorities suspended all his research activities. [12] As of 28 December 2018, He is sequestered in a university apartment, under some sort of surveillance, [13] [14] and may face serious consequences. [15] In February 2019, news was reported that suggested the Chinese government may have helped fund the CRISPR babies experiment, at least in part, based on newly uncovered documents. [16] [17] [18]

In 2019, The World Health Organization has launched a global registry to track research on human genome editing, after a call to halt all work on genome editing. [19] [20] [21]

In May 2019, lawyers in China reported, in light of the purported creation by Chinese scientist He Jiankui of the first gene-edited humans, the drafting of regulations that anyone manipulating the human genome by gene-editing techniques, like CRISPR, would be held responsible for any related adverse consequences. [22] In December 2019, MIT Technology Review reported a substantial overview of the controversy to date. [23] [24] Later in December 2019, Chinese authorities announced that He Jiankui had been sentenced to three years in prison and fined 3 million yuan (US$430,000) for his genetic research efforts. [25] [26]

Origins

On 10 June 2017, a Chinese couple, an HIV-positive father and HIV-negative mother, pseudonymously called Mark and Grace, [27] attended a conference held by He Jiankui at the Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech) in Shenzen. They were offered in vitro fertilization along with gene-editing of their embryos so as to develop innate resistance to HIV infection in their offspring. They agreed to volunteer through informed consent and the experiment was carried out in secrecy. Six other couples having similar fertility problems were subsequently recruited. [1] The couples were recruited through a Beijing-based AIDS advocacy group called Baihualin China League. [28] When later examined, the consent forms were noted as incomplete and inadequate. [27] For performing the experiment, He Jiankui claimed that he obtained approval from the ethics committee of the Shenzhen HarMoniCare Women's and Children's Hospital, upon an inquiry of which the hospital denied such approval. The hospital's spokesperson declared that there were no records of such ethical approval, saying, "[The] gene editing process did not take place at our hospital. The babies were not born here either." [29] It was later confirmed that the approval certificate was forged. [30] [31]

The embryos that became Lulu and Nana were generated during a clinical experiment run by He Jiankui, a Chinese scientist of the Southern University of Science and Technology in Shenzhen, while he was on leave from the university and working through Shenzhen Harmonicare Women’s and Children’s Hospital. [28] TDr. He kept the clinical project secret from the scientific community until the experiment's announcement, and as of 28 November 2018, it was unclear whether the participants had given truly informed consent. [32] [33]

Experiment and birth

He Jiankui, the researcher, took sperm and eggs from the couples, performed in vitro fertilization with the eggs and sperm, and then edited the genomes of the embryos using CRISPR/Cas9. [28] The editing targeted a gene, CCR5 , that codes for a protein that HIV uses to enter cells. [33] [34] He was trying to create a specific mutation in the gene, (CCR5 Δ32), that few people naturally have — that possibly confers innate resistance to HIV, [33] as seen in the case of the Berlin Patient. [35] Dr. He said that Lulu and Nana still carried functional copies of CCR5 along with disabled CCR5 given mosaicism inherent in the present state of the art in germ-line editing.[ citation needed ] There are forms of HIV that use a different receptor gene instead of CCR5; therefore, the work of Dr. He did not theoretically protect Lulu and Nana from those forms of HIV. [33] He used a preimplantation genetic diagnosis process on the embryos that were edited, where three to five single cells were removed, and fully sequenced them to identify chimerism and off-target errors. Dr. He says that during the pregnancy, cell-free fetal DNA was fully sequenced to check for off-target errors, and an amniocentesis was offered to check for problems with the pregnancy, but the mother declined. [33] Lulu and Nana were born in secrecy in October 2018. [36] Dr. He said that they appeared to be healthy. [32]

Revelation

He Jiankui's announcment

He Jiankui was planning to reveal his experiments and the birth of Lulu and Nana at the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing, which was to be organized at the University of Hong Kong during 27–29 November 2019. [37] However, on 25 November 2018, Antonio Regalado, senior editor for biomedicine for MIT Technology Review, posted on the journal's website about the experiment based on He Jiankui's applications for conducting clinical trial that had been posted earlier on the Chinese clinical trials registry. At the time, He Jiankui refused to comment on the conditions of the pregnancy. [5] Prompted by the publicity, He Jiankui immediately posted about his experiment and the successful birth of the twins on Youtube the same day. [38] [39] Dr. He's experiment had received no independent confirmation, and had not been peer reviewed or published in a scientific journal. [40] [41] [42] [43] Soon after He Jiankui's revelation, the university at which He was previously employed, the Southern University of Science and Technology, stated He's research was conducted outside of their campus, and they were unaware of the research project and its nature. [44] China’s National Health Commission also ordered provincial health officials to investigate his case soon after the experiment was revealed. [40]

Reactions and aftermath

He did not disclose the parents' names and they did not make themselves available to be interviewed, so their reaction to this experiment and the ensuing controversy is not known. [28] There was widespread criticism in the media and scientific community over the conduct of the clinical project and its secrecy, [45] and concerns raised for the long term well being of Lulu and Nana. [32] [43] Bioethicist Henry T. Greely of Stanford Law School declared, "I unequivocally condemn the experiment," [46] and later, "He Jiankui’s experiment was, amazingly, even worse than I first thought." [47]

Michael W. Deem, an American bioengineering professor at Rice University and Dr. He's doctoral advisor, was involved in the research, and was present when people involved in He's study gave consent. [28] Deem came under investigation by Rice after news of the work was made public. [48] A series of investigations were opened by He's university, local authorities, and the Chinese government. On 25 November 2018, MIT Technology Review published a story about the work, based on documents that had been posted earlier that month on the Chinese clinical trials registry. [42] After that story was posted, Dr. He released a promotional video on YouTube and the next day the Associated Press published an interview with him. [42] [28] He had engaged a public relations firm as well. [49] He eventually presented the work that led to the birth of the girls on 28 November at the International Human Genome Editing Summit. [32] On 29 November 2018, Chinese authorities suspended all of He's research activities, saying his work was "extremely abominable in nature" and a violation of Chinese law. [50] As of 28 December 2018, He Jiankui is sequestered in a university apartment under some sort of surveillance, [51] [52] and may face serious consequences. [53]

On 29 January 2019, it was learned that a U.S. Nobel laureate Craig Mello interviewed He about his experiment with gene-edited babies. [54] In February 2019, He's claims were reported to have been confirmed by Chinese investigators, according to NPR News. [55] Later in February 2019, news was reported that suggested the Chinese government may have helped fund the CRISPR babies experiment, at least in part, based on newly uncovered documents. [56] [57] [58]

In December 2019, He Jiankiu received a 3-year prison sentence for "illegal medical practices" as well as a fine of 3 million Chinese yuan ($429,000). [59] [60]

In January 2019, scientists in China reported the creation of five identical cloned gene-edited monkeys, using the same cloning technique that was used with Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua – the first ever cloned monkeys - and Dolly the sheep, and the same gene-editing Crispr-Cas9 technique allegedly used by He Jiankui in creating the first ever gene-modified human babies Lulu and Nana. The monkey clones were made in order to study several medical diseases. [61] [62]

In February 2019, scientists reported that Lulu and Nana may have inadvertently (or perhaps, intentionally [18] ) had their brains altered, [63] since CCR5 is linked to improved memory function in mice, [64] as well as enhanced recovery from strokes in humans. [65] Although He Jiankui stated during the Second International Summit on Human Genome Editing, that he was against using genome editing for enhancement, [66] he also acknowledged, that he was aware of the studies linking CCR5 to enhanced memory function.

In April 2019, for the first time, use of the CRISPR technology to edit human genes to treat cancer patients, with whom standard treatments were not successful, has been reported. [67] [68]

In June 2019, researchers suggest that the purportedly genetically edited humans may have been mutated in a way that shortens life expectancy. [69] [70] [71] However, this study was later retracted. [72]

See also

Related Research Articles

Genetically modified organism Organisms whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering methods

A genetically modified organism (GMO) is any organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. The exact definition of a genetically modified organism and what constitutes genetic engineering varies, with the most common being an organism altered in a way that "does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination". A wide variety of organisms have been genetically modified (GM), from animals to plants and microorganisms. Genes have been transferred within the same species, across species and even across kingdoms. New genes can be introduced, or endogenous genes can be enhanced, altered or knocked out.

Gene therapy therapeutic approach that involves inserting nucleic acids into the patients cells

Gene therapy is a medical field which focuses on the utilization of the therapeutic delivery of nucleic acid into a patient's cells as a drug to treat disease. The first attempt at modifying human DNA was performed in 1980 by Martin Cline, but the first successful nuclear gene transfer in humans, approved by the National Institutes of Health, was performed in May 1989. The first therapeutic use of gene transfer as well as the first direct insertion of human DNA into the nuclear genome was performed by French Anderson in a trial starting in September 1990. It is thought to be able to cure many genetic disorders or treat them over time.

A designer baby is a baby whose genetic makeup has been selected or altered, often to include a particular gene or to remove genes associated with a disease. This process usually involves analysing a wide range of human embryos to identify genes associated with particular diseases and characteristics, and selecting embryos that have the desired genetic makeup; a process known as preimplantation genetic diagnosis. Other potential methods by which a baby's genetic information can be altered involve directly editing the genome – a person's genetic code – before birth. This process is not routinely performed and only one instance of this is known to have occurred as of 2019, where Chinese twins Lulu and Nana were edited as embryos, causing widespread criticism.

Genetically modified animal animals that have been genetically modified for various purposes

Genetically modified animals are animals that have been genetically modified for a variety of purposes including producing drugs, enhancing yields, increase resistance to disease, etc. The vast majority of genetically modified animals are at the research stage with the number close to entering the market remains small.

Michael W. Deem is the John W. Cox Professor of Biochemical and Genetic Engineering and Professor of Physics & Astronomy at Rice University in Houston, Texas. He is known for his work in parallel tempering and proposals to improve vaccine development by estimating the antigenic "distance" for any two samples of virus. His awards include a National Science Foundation CAREER Awards (1997), Top 100 Young Innovator, MIT Technology Review (1999) and Alfred P. Sloan Fellow (2000).

Genome editing type of genetic engineering

Genome editing, or genome engineering, or gene editing, is a type of genetic engineering in which DNA is inserted, deleted, modified or replaced in the genome of a living organism. Unlike early genetic engineering techniques that randomly inserts genetic material into a host genome, genome editing targets the insertions to site specific locations.

Genetic engineering techniques

Genetic engineering can be accomplished using multiple techniques. There are a number of steps that are followed before a genetically modified organism (GMO) is created. Genetic engineers must first choose what gene they wish to insert, modify, or delete. The gene must then be isolated and incorporated, along with other genetic elements, into a suitable vector. This vector is then used to insert the gene into the host genome, creating a transgenic or edited organism. The ability to genetically engineer organisms is built on years of research and discovery on how genes function and how we can manipulate them. Important advances included the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases and the development of polymerase chain reaction and sequencing.

Gene drive

A gene drive is a genetic engineering technology that propagates a particular suite of genes throughout a population by altering the probability that a specific allele will be transmitted to offspring from the natural 50% probability. Gene drives can arise through a variety of mechanisms. They have been proposed to provide an effective means of genetically modifying specific populations and entire species.

Biotechnology risk is a form of existential risk that could come from biological sources, such as genetically engineered biological agents. These can come either intentionally or unintentionally. A chapter in biotechnology and biosecurity was published in Nick Bostrom's Global Catastrophic Risks, which covered risks such as viral agents. Since then, new technologies like CRISPR and gene drives have been introduced.

Josiah Zayner

Josiah Zayner is a biohacker and scientist best known for his self-experimentation and his work making hands-on genetic engineering accessible to a lay audience, including CRISPR.

John Jin Zhang is a medical scientist who made important contributions in fertility research, and particularly in in vitro fertilization. He made headlines in September 2016 for successfully producing the world's first three-parent baby using the spindle transfer technique of mitochondrial replacement. Having obtained an M.D. from Zhejiang University School of Medicine, an M.Sc. from University of Birmingham, and a Ph.D. from University of Cambridge, he became the founder-director of New Hope Fertility Center in New York, USA.

Human germline engineering is the process by which the genome of an individual is edited in such a way that the change is heritable. This is achieved through genetic alterations within the germ cells, or the reproductive cells, such as the egg and sperm. Human Germline engineering is a type of genetic modification that directly manipulates the genome using molecular engineering techniques. Aside from germline engineering, genetic modification can be applied in another way, somatic genetic modification Somatic gene modification consists of altering somatic cells, which are all cells in the body that are not involved in reproduction. While somatic gene therapy does change the genome of the targeted cells, these cells are not within the germline, so the alterations are not heritable and cannot be passed on to the next generation.

Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua Worlds first cloned primates

Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua are a pair of identical crab-eating macaques that were created through somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT), the same cloning technique that produced Dolly the sheep in 1996. They are the first cloned primates produced by this technique. Unlike previous attempts to clone monkeys, the donated nuclei came from fetal cells, not embryonic cells. The primates were both born at the Institute of Neuroscience of the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Shanghai.

Off-target genome editing refers to nonspecific and unintended genetic modifications that can arise through the use of engineered nuclease technologies such as: clustered, regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-Cas9, transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALEN), meganucleases, and zinc finger nucleases (ZFN). These tools use different mechanisms to bind a predetermined sequence of DNA (“target”), which they cleave, creating a double-stranded chromosomal break (DSB) that summons the cell's DNA repair mechanisms and leads to site-specific modifications. If these complexes do not bind at the target, often a result of homologous sequences and/or mismatch tolerance, they will cleave off-target DSB and cause non-specific genetic modifications. Specifically, off-target effects consist of unintended point mutations, deletions, insertions inversions, and translocations.

He Jiankui Chinese scientist

He Jiankui is a Chinese biophysics researcher who was an associate professor in the Department of Biology of the Southern University of Science and Technology (SUSTech) in Shenzhen, China. Earning his Ph.D. from Rice University in Texas on protein evolution including that of CRISPR, He Jiankui learned gene-editing technique (CRISPR/Cas9) as a postdoctoral researcher at Standford University in California.

CRISPR gene editing Gene editing method

CRISPR gene editing is a method by which the genomes of living organisms may be edited. It is based on a simplified version of the bacterial CRISPR/Cas (CRISPR-Cas9) antiviral defense system. By delivering the Cas9 nuclease complexed with a synthetic guide RNA (gRNA) into a cell, the cell's genome can be cut at a desired location, allowing existing genes to be removed and/or new ones added.

<i>Human Nature</i> (2019 film) 2019 film directed by Adam Bolt

Human Nature is a 2019 documentary film directed by Adam Bolt and written by Adam Bolt and Regina Sobel. Producers of the film include Greg Boustead, Elliot Kirschner and Dan Rather.

Chen Hu was a Chinese military physician and stem cell researcher. He served as Director of the PLA Institute of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Research and the Beijing Hematopoietic Stem Cell Therapy Laboratory. Known for his research on hematopoietic stem cell therapy for leukemia, he was awarded the State Science and Technology Progress Award in 2015 and the Ho Leung Ho Lee Prize in 2016. In 2017, he and Deng Hongkui engineered resistance to HIV in mice using CRISPR gene editing, and for the first time used the technique on an AIDS patient. He died of a sudden heart attack before their findings were published.

Deng Hongkui is a Chinese immunologist and stem cell researcher. He is a Changjiang Professor, the Boya Chair Professor, and Director of the Institute of Stem Cell Research at Peking University. He was awarded US$1.9 million by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation for his research on vaccines for HIV and hepatitis C. In 2017, he and Chen Hu engineered resistance to HIV in mice using CRISPR gene editing, and for the first time used the technique on an AIDS patient.

<i>Unnatural Selection</i> (TV series) 2019 documentary film

Unnatural Selection is a 2019 TV documentary series that presents an overview of genetic engineering and particularly, the DNA-editing technology of CRISPR, from the perspective of scientists, corporations and biohackers working from their home. It was released by Netflix on October 18, 2019.

References

  1. 1 2 Cohen, Jon (1 August 2019). "The untold story of the 'circle of trust' behind the world's first gene-edited babies". Science . Retrieved 1 August 2019.
  2. ↑ Begley, Sharon; Joseph, Andrew (17 December 2018). "The CRISPR shocker: How genome-editing scientist He Jiankui rose from obscurity to stun the world". Stat News . Retrieved 17 December 2018.
  3. ↑ Begley, Sharon (26 November 2018). "Claim of CRISPR'd baby girls stuns genome editing summit". Stat News . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
  4. 1 2 Reuters (26 November 2018). "China Orders Investigation After Scientist Claims First Gene-Edited Babies". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
  5. 1 2 Regalado, Antonio (25 November 2018). "Chinese scientists are creating CRISPR babies". MIT Technology Review.
  6. ↑ Bulluck, Pam (14 April 2019). "Gene-Edited Babies: What a Chinese Scientist Told an American Mentor". The New York Times . Retrieved 14 April 2019.
  7. ↑ Begley, Sharon (28 November 2018). "Amid uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies - STAT". STAT.
  8. ↑ Kolata, Gina; Belluck, Pam (5 December 2018). "Why Are Scientists So Upset About the First Crispr Babies? - Only because a rogue researcher defied myriad scientific and ethical norms and guidelines. We break it down". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 December 2018.
  9. ↑ The Editorial Board (28 January 2019). "Should Scientists Toy With the Secret to Life? - The gene-editing technology Crispr has the power to remake life as we know it. Questions about how to use it concern everyone". The New York Times . Retrieved 29 January 2019.
  10. ↑ Regalado, Antonio (25 November 2018). "Exclusive: Chinese scientists are creating CRISPR babies - A daring effort is under way to create the first children whose DNA has been tailored using gene editing". MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.
  11. ↑ Cyranoski, David (27 November 2018). "How the genome-edited babies revelation will affect research - Some scientists worry the startling claim will lead to knee-jerk regulations and damage the public's trust in gene editing". Nature . doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07559-8. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  12. ↑ Jiang, Steven; Regan, Helen; Berlinger, Joshua (29 November 2018). "China suspends scientists who claim to have produced first gene-edited babies". CNN News . Retrieved 29 November 2018.
  13. ↑ Chen, Elsi; Mozur, Paul (28 December 2018). "Chinese Scientist Who Claimed to Make Genetically Edited Babies Is Kept Under Guard". The New York Times . Retrieved 29 December 2018.
  14. ↑ Senthilingam, Meera (7 January 2019). "Chinese scientist was told not to create world's first gene-edited babies". CNN News . Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  15. ↑ Ramzy, Austin; Wee, Sui-Lee (21 January 2019). "Scientist Who Edited Babies' Genes Is Likely to Face Charges in China". The New York Times . Retrieved 21 January 2019.
  16. ↑ Qiu, Jane (25 February 2019). "Chinese government funding may have been used for 'CRISPR babies' project, documents suggest". STAT News . Retrieved 1 March 2019.
  17. ↑ Chen, Angela (26 February 2019). "New documents suggest Chinese government helped fund the CRISPR babies experiment". The Verge . Retrieved 1 March 2019.
  18. 1 2 Belluz, Julia (4 March 2019). "CRISPR babies: the Chinese government may have known more than it let on - The latest developments in the gene-editing saga raise more questions than answers". Vox . Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  19. ↑ "The World Health Organization Says No More Gene-Edited Babies". WIRED . 30 July 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  20. ↑ "WHO To Create Registry for Genetic Research". Voice of America . 29 August 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  21. ↑ "The WHO panel calls for registry of all human gene editing research". Reuters . 20 March 2019. Retrieved 26 November 2019.
  22. ↑ Cyranoski, David (20 May 2019). "China set to introduce gene-editing regulation following CRISPR-baby furore - The draft rules mean that anyone who manipulates human genes in adults or embryos is responsible for adverse outcomes". Nature . Retrieved 20 May 2019.
  23. ↑ Regalado, Antonio (3 December 2019). "China's CRISPR babies: Read exclusive excerpts from the unseen original research - He Jiankui's manuscript shows how he ignored ethical and scientific norms in creating the gene-edited twins Lulu and Nana". MIT Technology Review . Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  24. ↑ Musunuru, Kiran (3 December 2019). "Opinion: We need to know what happened to CRISPR twins Lulu and Nana - The unpublished research paper by He Jiankui about the creation of the babies shows proof of attempted gene editing gone awry". MIT Technology Review . Retrieved 3 December 2019.
  25. ↑ Wee, Sui-Lee (30 December 2019). "Chinese Scientist Who Genetically Edited Babies Gets 3 Years in Prison - He Jiankui's work was also carried out on a third infant, according to China's state media, in a new disclosure that is likely to add to the global uproar over such experiments". The New York Times . Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  26. ↑ Yee, Isaac; Hollingsworth, Julia (30 December 2019). "Chinese gene-editing scientist jailed for 3 years". CNN News . Retrieved 30 December 2019.
  27. 1 2 Caplan, Arthur (2019). "Getting serious about the challenge of regulating germline gene therapy". PLOS Biology. 17 (4): e3000223. doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.3000223. PMC   6490874 . PMID   31039143.
  28. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Marchione, Marilyn (26 November 2018). "Chinese researcher claims first gene-edited babies". AP NEWS.[ verification needed ]
  29. ↑ Liao, Rita (26 November 2018). "Hospital in China denies links to world's first gene-edited babies". Techcrunch. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  30. ↑ "Former ethics committee member of Shenzhen Hemei Women's and Pediatric Hospital: the signature of the examination application may be forged [Chinese]". wxn.qq.com. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  31. ↑ Cyranoski, David (6 March 2019). "China to tighten rules on gene editing in humans". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-019-00773-y.
  32. 1 2 3 4 Begley, Sharon (28 November 2018). "Amid uproar, Chinese scientist defends creating gene-edited babies - STAT". STAT.[ verification needed ]
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Belluck, Pam (28 November 2018). "Chinese Scientist Who Says He Edited Babies' Genes Defends His Work". The New York Times . Retrieved 29 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  34. ↑ de Silva E, Stumpf MP (December 2004). "HIV and the CCR5-Delta32 resistance allele". FEMS Microbiology Letters. 241 (1): 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.femsle.2004.09.040. PMID   15556703.[ verification needed ]
  35. ↑ ""Menschenversuche": Geburt genmanipulierter Babys verkündet". Stern (in German). 26 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  36. ↑ Bulluck, Pam (14 April 2019). "Gene-Edited Babies: What a Chinese Scientist Told an American Mentor". The New York Times . Retrieved 14 April 2019.[ verification needed ]
  37. ↑ Galvin, Molly (26 November 2018). "Statement from the Organizing Committee on Reported Human Embryo Genome Editing". www8.nationalacademies.org. Retrieved 8 January 2020.
  38. ↑ The He Lab (25 November 2018), About Lulu and Nana: Twin Girls Born Healthy After Gene Surgery As Single-Cell Embryos , retrieved 26 April 2019
  39. ↑ Dyer, Owen (2018). "Researcher who edited babies' genome retreats from view as criticism mounts". BMJ. 363: k5113. doi:10.1136/bmj.k5113. PMID   30504437.
  40. 1 2 Reuters (26 November 2018). "China Orders Investigation After Scientist Claims First Gene-Edited Babies". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  41. ↑ Begley, Sharon (26 November 2018). "Claim of CRISPR'd baby girls stuns genome editing summit". Stat News . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  42. 1 2 3 Regalado, Antonio (25 November 2018). "Exclusive: Chinese scientists are creating CRISPR babies - A daring effort is under way to create the first children whose DNA has been tailored using gene editing". MIT Technology Review . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 26 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  43. 1 2 Cyranoski, David (27 November 2018). "How the genome-edited babies revelation will affect research - Some scientists worry the startling claim will lead to knee-jerk regulations and damage the public's trust in gene editing". Nature . doi:10.1038/d41586-018-07559-8. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  44. ↑ Staff (26 November 2018). "Southern University of Science and Technology Statement On the Genetic Editing of Human Embryos Conducted by Dr. Jiankui HE - In the Focus - SUSTC". Southern University of Science and Technology (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  45. ↑ Kolata, Gina; Belluck, Pam (5 December 2018). "Why Are Scientists So Upset About the First Crispr Babies? - Only because a rogue researcher defied myriad scientific and ethical norms and guidelines. We break it down". The New York Times. Retrieved 5 December 2018.[ verification needed ]
  46. ↑ Farr, Cristina (26 November 2018). "Experiments to gene-edit babies are 'criminally reckless,' says Stanford bio-ethicist". CNBC. Archived from the original on 27 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  47. ↑ Greely, Henry T. (15 April 2019). "He Jiankui, embryo editing, CCR5, the London patient, and jumping to conclusions". Stat News . Retrieved 15 April 2019.[ verification needed ]
  48. ↑ LaMotte, Sandee (27 November 2018). "Rice professor under investigation for role in 'world's first gene-edited babies'". CNN News . Archived from the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  49. ↑ Joseph, Andrew; Robbins, Rebecca; Begley, Sharon (27 November 2018). "An outsider claimed genome-editing history; the world snapped to attention". STAT.[ verification needed ]
  50. ↑ Jiang, Steven; Regan, Helen; Berlinger, Joshua (29 November 2018). "China suspends scientists who claim to have produced first gene-edited babies". CNN News . Retrieved 29 November 2018.[ verification needed ]
  51. ↑ Chen, Elsi; Mozur, Paul (28 December 2018). "Chinese Scientist Who Claimed to Make Genetically Edited Babies Is Kept Under Guard". The New York Times . Retrieved 29 December 2018.[ verification needed ]
  52. ↑ Senthilingam, Meera (7 January 2019). "Chinese scientist was told not to create world's first gene-edited babies". CNN News . Retrieved 21 January 2019.[ verification needed ]
  53. ↑ Ramzy, Austin; Wee, Sui-Lee (21 January 2019). "Scientist Who Edited Babies' Genes Is Likely to Face Charges in China". The New York Times . Retrieved 21 January 2019.[ verification needed ]
  54. ↑ C; Choi, Ice; Marchione, Marilynn (28 January 2019). "AP Exclusive: US Nobelist was told of gene-edited babies". AP NEWS. Retrieved 29 January 2019.[ verification needed ]
  55. ↑ Schmitz, Rob (5 February 2019). "Gene-Editing Scientist's 'Actions Are A Product Of Modern China'". NPR News . Retrieved 5 February 2019.[ verification needed ]
  56. ↑ Qiu, Jane (25 February 2019). "Chinese government funding may have been used for 'CRISPR babies' project, documents suggest". STAT News . Retrieved 1 March 2019.[ verification needed ]
  57. ↑ Chen, Angela (26 February 2019). "New documents suggest Chinese government helped fund the CRISPR babies experiment". The Verge . Retrieved 1 March 2019.[ verification needed ]
  58. ↑ Belluz, Julia (4 March 2019). "CRISPR babies: the Chinese government may have known more than it let on - The latest developments in the gene-editing saga raise more questions than answers". Vox . Retrieved 4 March 2019.[ verification needed ]
  59. ↑ NormileDec. 30, Dennis; 2019; Am, 8:15 (30 December 2019). "Chinese scientist who produced genetically altered babies sentenced to 3 years in jail". Science | AAAS. Retrieved 3 January 2020.
  60. ↑ Cyranoski, David (3 January 2020). "What CRISPR-baby prison sentences mean for research - Chinese court sends strong signal by punishing He Jiankui and two colleagues". Nature . doi:10.1038/d41586-020-00001-y . Retrieved 3 January 2020.
  61. ↑ Science China Press (23 January 2019). "Gene-edited disease monkeys cloned in China". EurekAlert! . Retrieved 24 January 2019.
  62. ↑ Mandelbaum, Ryan F. (23 January 2019). "China's Latest Cloned-Monkey Experiment Is an Ethical Mess". Gizmodo . Retrieved 24 January 2019.
  63. ↑ Regalado, Antonio (21 February 2019). "China's CRISPR twins might have had their brains inadvertently enhanced - New research suggests that a controversial gene-editing experiment to make children resistant to HIV may also have enhanced their ability to learn and form memories". MIT Technology Review . Retrieved 21 February 2019.
  64. ↑ Zhou, Miou; Greenhill, Stuart; Huang, Shan; Silva, Tawnie K.; Sano, Yoshitake; Wu, Shumin; Cai, Ying; Nagaoka, Yoshiko; Sehgal, Megha (20 December 2016). "CCR5 is a suppressor for cortical plasticity and hippocampal learning and memory". eLife. 5. doi:10.7554/eLife.20985. ISSN   2050-084X. PMC   5213777 . PMID   27996938.
  65. ↑ Carmichael, S. Thomas; Shohami, Esther; Silva, Alcino J.; Bornstein, Natan M.; Katz, Noomi; Silva, Tawnie K.; Huang, Shan; Zhou, Miou; Kesner, Efrat L. (21 February 2019). "CCR5 Is a Therapeutic Target for Recovery after Stroke and Traumatic Brain Injury". Cell. 176 (5): 1143–1157.e13. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2019.01.044. ISSN   0092-8674. PMID   30794775.
  66. ↑ Society and Ethics Research Wellcome Genome Campus (3 December 2018), 28 Nov 2018 - International Summit on Human Genome Editing - He Jiankui presentation and Q&A , retrieved 22 February 2019
  67. ↑ Fingas, Jon (16 April 2019). "CRISPR gene editing has been used on humans in the US - It's part of a trial that could rethink medicine". Engadget . Retrieved 16 April 2019.
  68. ↑ Staff (17 April 2019). "CRISPR has been used to treat US cancer patients for the first time". MIT Technology Review . Retrieved 17 April 2019.
  69. ↑ Gallagher, James (3 June 2019). "He Jiankui: Baby gene experiment 'foolish and dangerous'". BBC News . Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  70. ↑ Stein, Rob (3 June 2019). "2 Chinese Babies With Edited Genes May Face Higher Risk Of Premature Death". NPR News . Retrieved 3 June 2019.
  71. ↑ Wei, Xinzhu; Nielsen, Rasmus (3 June 2019). "CCR5-∆32 is deleterious in the homozygous state in humans". Nature Medicine . 25 (6): 909–910. doi:10.1038/s41591-019-0459-6. PMID   31160814.
  72. ↑ https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-019-03032-2
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.