Maclura pomifera

Last updated

Osage orange
Maclura pomifera2.jpg
Foliage and multiple fruit
Status TNC G5.svg
Secure  (NatureServe) [2]
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Moraceae
Genus: Maclura
Species:
M. pomifera
Binomial name
Maclura pomifera
(Raf.) Schneid.
Synonyms [3] [4]
  • Ioxylon pomiferum Raf.
  • Joxylon pomiferumRaf.
  • Maclura aurantiacaNutt.
  • Maclura pomifera var. inermisC.K.Schneid.
  • Toxylon aurantiacum(Nutt.) Raf.
  • Toxylon macluraRaf.
  • Toxylon pomiferumRaf.

Maclura pomifera, commonly known as the Osage orange ( /ˈoʊseɪdʒ/ OH-sayj), is a small deciduous tree or large shrub, native to the south-central United States. It typically grows about 8 to 15 metres (30–50 ft) tall. The distinctive fruit, a multiple fruit that resembles an immature orange, is roughly spherical, bumpy, 8 to 15 centimetres (3–6 in) in diameter, and turns bright yellow-green in the fall. [5] The fruit excretes a sticky white latex when cut or damaged. Despite the name "Osage orange", [6] it is not related to the orange. [7] It is a member of the mulberry family, Moraceae. [8] Due to its latex secretions and woody pulp, the fruit is typically not eaten by humans and rarely by foraging animals. Ecologists Daniel H. Janzen and Paul S. Martin proposed in 1982 that the fruit of this species might be an example of what has come to be called an evolutionary anachronism—that is, a fruit coevolved with a large animal seed dispersal partner that is now extinct. This hypothesis is controversial. [9] [10]

Contents

Maclura pomifera has many common names, including mock orange, hedge apple, hedge ball, monkey ball, pap, monkey brains and yellow-wood. The name bois d'arc (French, meaning "bow-wood") has also been corrupted into bodark and bodock. [11] [12] [13]

History

The earliest account of the tree in the English language was given by William Dunbar, a Scottish explorer, in his narrative of a journey made in 1804 from St. Catherine's Landing on the Mississippi River to the Ouachita River. [14] Meriwether Lewis sent some slips and cuttings of the curiosity to President Jefferson in March 1804. According to Lewis's letter, the samples were donated by "Mr. Peter Choteau, who resided the greater portion of his time for many years with the Osage Nation". (Note: This referred to Pierre Chouteau, a fur trader from Saint Louis.) Those cuttings did not survive. In 1810, Bradbury relates that he found two Maclura pomifera trees growing in the garden of Pierre Chouteau, one of the first settlers of Saint Louis, apparently the same person. [14]

American settlers used the Osage orange (i.e. "hedge apple") as a hedge to exclude free-range livestock from vegetable gardens and corn fields. Under severe pruning, the hedge apple sprouted abundant adventitious shoots from its base; as these shoots grew, they became interwoven and formed a dense, thorny barrier hedge. The thorny Osage orange tree was widely naturalized throughout the United States until this usage was superseded by the invention of barbed wire in 1874. [15] [6] [16] [17] By providing a barrier that was "horse-high, bull-strong, and pig-tight", Osage orange hedges provided the "crucial stop-gap measure for westward expansion until the introduction of barbed wire a few decades later". [18]

The trees were named bois d'arc ("bow-wood") [6] by early French settlers who observed the wood being used for war clubs and bow-making by Native Americans. [14] Meriwether Lewis was told that the people of the Osage Nation, "So much ... esteem the wood of this tree for the purpose of making their bows, that they travel many hundreds of miles in quest of it." [19] The trees are also known as "bodark", "bodarc", or "bodock" trees, most likely originating as a corruption of bois d'arc. [6]

The Comanche also used this wood for their bows. [20] They liked the wood because it was strong, flexible and durable, [6] and the bush/tree was common along river bottoms of the Comanchería. Some historians believe that the high value this wood had to Native Americans throughout North America for the making of bows, along with its small natural range, contributed to the great wealth of the Spiroan Mississippian culture that controlled all the land in which these trees grew. [21]

Etymology

The genus Maclura is named in honor of William Maclure [13] (1763–1840), a Scottish-born American geologist. The specific epithet pomifera means "fruit-bearing". [13] The common name Osage derives from Osage Native Americans from whom young plants were first obtained, as told in the notes of Meriwether Lewis in 1804. [17]

Description

General habit

Mature trees range from 12 to 20 metres (40–65 ft) tall with short trunks and round-topped canopies. [6] The roots are thick, fleshy, and covered with bright orange bark. The tree's mature bark is dark, deeply furrowed and scaly. The plant has significant potential to invade unmanaged habitats. [6]

The wood of M. pomifera is golden to bright yellow but fades to medium brown with ultraviolet light exposure. [22] The wood is heavy, hard, strong, and flexible, capable of receiving a fine polish and very durable in contact with the ground. It has a specific gravity of 0.7736 or 773.6 kg/m3 (48.29 lb/cu ft).

Leaves and branches

Leaves are arranged alternately in a slender growing shoot 90 to 120 centimetres (3–4 ft) long. In form they are simple, a long oval terminating in a slender point. The leaves are 8 to 13 centimetres (3–5 in) long and 5 to 8 centimetres (2–3 in) wide, and are thick, firm, dark green, shining above, and paler green below when full grown. In autumn they turn bright yellow. The leaf axils contain formidable spines which when mature are about 2.5 centimetres (1 in) long.

Branchlets are at first bright green and pubescent; during their first winter they become light brown tinged with orange, and later they become a paler orange brown. Branches contain a yellow pith, and are armed with stout, straight, axillary spines. During the winter, the branches bear lateral buds that are depressed-globular, partly immersed in the bark, and pale chestnut brown in color.

Flowers and fruit

As a dioecious plant, the inconspicuous pistillate (female) and staminate (male) flowers are found on different trees. Staminate flowers are pale green, small, and arranged in racemes borne on long, slender, drooping peduncles developed from the axils of crowded leaves on the spur-like branchlets of the previous year. They feature a hairy, four-lobed calyx; the four stamens are inserted opposite the lobes of calyx, on the margin of a thin disk. Pistillate flowers are borne in a dense spherical many-flowered head which appears on a short stout peduncle from the axils of the current year's growth. Each flower has a hairy four-lobed calyx with thick, concave lobes that invest the ovary and enclose the fruit. Ovaries are superior, ovate, compressed, green, and crowned by a long slender style covered with white stigmatic hairs. The ovule is solitary.

The mature multiple fruit's size and general appearance resembles a large, yellow-green orange (the fruit), about 10 to 13 centimetres (4–5 in) in diameter, with a roughened and tuberculated surface. The compound (or multiple) fruit is a syncarp of numerous small drupes, in which the carpels (ovaries) have grown together; thus, it is classified a multiple-accessory fruit. Each small drupe is oblong, compressed and rounded; they contain a milky latex which oozes when the fruit is damaged or cut. [23] The seeds are oblong. Although the flowering is dioecious, the pistillate tree when isolated will still bear large oranges, perfect to the sight but lacking the seeds. [14] The fruit has a cucumber-like flavor. [23]

Distribution

Natural range of M. pomifera in pre-Columbian era America. Maclura pomifera range map.png
Natural range of M. pomifera in pre-Columbian era America.

Osage orange's pre-Columbian range was largely restricted to a small area in what is now the United States, namely the Red River drainage of Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas, as well as the Blackland Prairies and post oak savannas. [6] A disjunct population also occurred in the Chisos Mountains of Texas. [24] It has since become widely naturalized in the United States and Ontario, Canada. [6] Osage orange has been planted in all the 48 contiguous states of the United States and in southeastern Canada. [24]

The largest known Osage orange tree is located at the Patrick Henry National Memorial, in Brookneal, Virginia, and is believed to be almost 350 years old. [25] [26] [27] Another historic tree is located on the grounds of Fort Harrod, a Kentucky pioneer settlement in Harrodsburg, Kentucky. [28]

Ecological aspects of historical distribution

Evidence of a seed predator (February in Kansas). Maclura pomifera in Kansas winter.jpg
Evidence of a seed predator (February in Kansas).
Mound of a single fallen fruit sprouting seeds (April in Illinois). Maclura pomifera fruit sprouting seeds.jpg
Mound of a single fallen fruit sprouting seeds (April in Illinois).

Because of the limited original range and lack of obvious effective means of propagation, the Osage orange has been the subject of controversial claims by some authors to be an evolutionary anachronism, whereby one or more now extinct Pleistocene megafauna, such as ground sloths, mammoths, mastodons or gomphotheres, fed on the fruit and aided in seed dispersal. [21] [29] An equine species that became extinct at the same time also has been suggested as the plant's original dispersal agent because modern horses and other livestock will sometimes eat the fruit. [23] This hypothesis is controversial. For example, a 2015 study indicated that Osage orange seeds are not effectively spread by extant horse or elephant species, [30] while a 2018 study concludes that squirrels are ineffective, short-distance seed dispersers. [9] The claim has been criticised as a "just-so story" that lacks any empirical evidence. [10]

The fruit is not poisonous to humans or livestock, but is not preferred by them, [31] because it is mostly inedible due to a large size (about the diameter of a softball) and hard, dry texture. [23] The edible seeds of the fruit are used by squirrels as food. [32] Large animals such as livestock, which typically would consume fruits and disperse seeds, mainly ignore the fruit. [23]

Ecology

The fruits are consumed by black-tailed deer in Texas, and white-tailed deer and fox squirrels in the Midwest. Crossbills are said to peck the seeds out. [33] Loggerhead shrikes, a declining species in much of North America, use the tree for nesting and cache prey items upon its thorns. [34]

Cultivation

Maclura pomifera prefers a deep and fertile soil, but is hardy over most of the contiguous United States, where it is used as a hedge. It must be regularly pruned to keep it in bounds, and the shoots of a single year will grow one to two metres (3–6 ft) long, making it suitable for coppicing. [14] [35] A neglected hedge will become fruit-bearing. It is remarkably free from insect predators and fungal diseases. [14] A thornless male cultivar of the species exists and is vegetatively reproduced for ornamental use. [24] M. pomifera is cultivated in Italy, the former Yugoslavia, Romania, former USSR, and India. [36]

Chemistry

Osajin and pomiferin are isoflavones present in the wood and fruit in an approximately 1:2 ratio by weight, and in turn comprise 4–6% of the weight of dry fruit and wood samples. [37] Primary components of fresh fruit include pectin (46%), resin (17%), fat (5%), and sugar (before hydrolysis, 5%). The moisture content of fresh fruits is about 80%. [38]

Uses

A tree felled in 1954 exhibits little rot after more than six decades Osage orange Maclura pomifera Top.JPG
A tree felled in 1954 exhibits little rot after more than six decades
Typical bright yellow newly-cut wood Maclura trunk.jpg
Typical bright yellow newly-cut wood

The Osage orange is commonly used as a tree row windbreak in prairie states, which gives it one of its colloquial names, "hedge apple". [6] It was one of the primary trees used in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's "Great Plains Shelterbelt" WPA project, which was launched in 1934 as an ambitious plan to modify weather and prevent soil erosion in the Great Plains states; by 1942 it resulted in the planting of 30,233 shelterbelts containing 220 million trees that stretched for 18,600 miles (29,900 km). [39] The sharp-thorned trees were also planted as cattle-deterring hedges before the introduction of barbed wire and afterward became an important source of fence posts. [13] [40] In 2001, its wood was used in the construction in Chestertown, Maryland of the schooner Sultana, a replica of HMS Sultana. [41]

The heavy, close-grained yellow-orange wood is dense and prized for tool handles, treenails, fence posts, and other applications requiring a strong, dimensionally stable wood that withstands rot. [6] [42] Although its wood is commonly knotty and twisted, straight-grained Osage orange timber makes good bows, as used by Native Americans. [6] John Bradbury, a Scottish botanist who had traveled the interior United States extensively in the early 19th century, reported that a bow made of Osage timber could be traded for a horse and a blanket. [14] Additionally, a yellow-orange dye can be extracted from the wood, which can be used as a substitute for fustic and aniline dyes. At present, florists use the fruits of M. pomifera for decorative purposes. [43]

When dried, the wood has the highest heating value of any commonly available North American wood, and burns long and hot. [44] [45] [46]

Osage orange wood is more rot-resistant than most, making good fence posts. [6] They are generally set up green because the dried wood is too hard to reliably accept the staples used to attach the fencing to the posts. Palmer and Fowler's Fieldbook of Natural History 2nd edition rates Osage orange wood as being at least twice as hard and strong as white oak ( Quercus alba ). Its dense grain structure makes for good tonal properties. Production of woodwind instruments and waterfowl game calls are common uses for the wood. [47]

Compounds extracted from the fruit, when concentrated, may repel insects. However, the naturally occurring concentrations of these compounds in the fruit are too low to make the fruit an effective insect repellent. [31] [48] [49] In 2004, the EPA insisted that a website selling M. pomifera fruits online remove any mention of their supposed repellent properties as false advertising. [43]

Traditional medicine

The Comanche formerly used a decoction of the roots topically as a wash to treat sore eyes. [50]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fruit</span> Seed-bearing part of a flowering plant

In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants (angiosperms) that is formed from the ovary after flowering.

<i>Asimina</i> North American Genus of fruit trees

Asimina is a genus of small trees or shrubs described as a genus in 1763. Asimina is the only temperate genus in the tropical and subtropical flowering plant family Annonaceae. Asimina have large, simple leaves and large fruit. It is native to eastern North America and collectively referred to as pawpaw. The genus includes the widespread common pawpaw Asimina triloba, which bears the largest edible fruit indigenous to the United States. Pawpaws are native to 26 states of the U.S. and to Ontario in Canada. The common pawpaw is a patch-forming (clonal) understory tree found in well-drained, deep, fertile bottomland and hilly upland habitat. Pawpaws are in the same plant family (Annonaceae) as the custard apple, cherimoya, sweetsop, soursop, and ylang-ylang; the genus is the only member of that family not confined to the tropics. Fossils date to the Cretaceous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Guava</span> Tropical fruit

Guava is a common tropical fruit cultivated in many tropical and subtropical regions. The common guava Psidium guajava is a small tree in the myrtle family (Myrtaceae), native to Mexico, Central America, the Caribbean and northern South America. The name guava is also given to some other species in the genus Psidium such as strawberry guava and to the pineapple guava, Feijoa sellowiana. In 2019, 55 million tonnes of guavas were produced worldwide, led by India with 45% of the total. Botanically, guavas are berries.

<i>Liquidambar styraciflua</i> Tree species

American sweetgum, also known as American storax, hazel pine, bilsted, redgum, satin-walnut, star-leaved gum, alligatorwood, gumball tree, or simply sweetgum, is a deciduous tree in the genus Liquidambar native to warm temperate areas of eastern North America and tropical montane regions of Mexico and Central America. Sweetgum is one of the main valuable forest trees in the southeastern United States, and is a popular ornamental tree in temperate climates. It is recognizable by the combination of its five-pointed star-shaped leaves and its hard, spiked fruits. It is currently classified in the plant family Altingiaceae, but was formerly considered a member of the Hamamelidaceae.

A hedge is a line of closely spaced shrubs planted to act as a barrier or boundary.

<i>Magnolia acuminata</i> Species of tree

Magnolia acuminata, commonly called the cucumber tree, cucumber magnolia or blue magnolia, is one of the largest magnolias, and one of the cold-hardiest. It is a large forest tree of the Eastern United States and Southern Ontario in Canada. It is a tree that tends to occur singly as scattered specimens, rather than in groves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Loquat</span> Species of plant

The loquat is a large evergreen shrub or tree grown commercially for its orange fruit. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant.

<i>Artocarpus integer</i> Asian tree related to breadfruit and jackfruit

Artocarpus integer, commonly known as chempedak or cempedak, is a species of tree in the family Moraceae, in the same genus as breadfruit and jackfruit. It is native to Southeast Asia. Cempedak is an important crop in Malaysia and is also popularly cultivated in southern Thailand and parts of Indonesia, and has the potential to be utilized in other areas. It is currently limited in range to Southeast Asia, with some trees in Australia and Hawaii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Jonathan Baldwin Turner</span> American academic (1805–1899)

Jonathan Baldwin Turner was an American classical scholar, an ordained minister, a professor, an agriculturalist, an abolitionist, and a political activist. He also led a political movement to create agriculture colleges, and campaigned to institute land grant universities. He established the use of the thorny "hedge apple" planted to form a barrier in North America. In 1835, Turner married Rhodolphia Kibbe and they had seven children.

<i>Diospyros virginiana</i> Species of tree

Diospyros virginiana is a persimmon species commonly called the American persimmon, common persimmon, eastern persimmon, simmon, possumwood, possum apples, or sugar plum. It ranges from southern Connecticut to Florida, and west to Texas, Louisiana, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Iowa. The tree grows in the wild but has been cultivated for its fruit and wood since prehistoric times by Native Americans.

<i>Melia azedarach</i> Species of plant

Melia azedarach, commonly known as the chinaberry tree, pride of India, bead-tree, Cape lilac, syringa berrytree, Persian lilac, Indian lilac, or white cedar, is a species of deciduous tree in the mahogany family, Meliaceae, that is native to Indomalaya and Australasia.

<i>Aegle marmelos</i> Species of tree, considered sacred by Hindus

Aegle marmelos, commonly known as bael, also Bengal quince, golden apple, Japanese bitter orange, stone apple or wood apple, is a species of tree native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It is present in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Nepal as a naturalized species. The tree is considered to be sacred by Hindus and Buddhists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Fox squirrel</span> Species of mammal

The fox squirrel, also known as the eastern fox squirrel or Bryant's fox squirrel, is the largest species of tree squirrel native to North America. It is sometimes mistaken for the American red squirrel or eastern gray squirrel in areas where the species co-exist, though they differ in size and coloration.

<i>Annona glabra</i> Tropical fruit tree

Annona glabra is a tropical fruit tree in the family Annonaceae, in the same genus as the soursop and cherimoya. Common names include pond apple, alligator apple, swamp apple, corkwood, bobwood, and monkey apple. The tree is native to Florida in the United States, the Caribbean, Central and South America, and West Africa. It is common in the Everglades. The A. glabra tree is considered an invasive species in Sri Lanka and Australia. It grows in swamps, is tolerant of saltwater, and cannot grow in dry soil.

<i>Maclura</i> Genus of flowering plants

Maclura is a genus of flowering plants in the mulberry family, Moraceae. It includes the inedible Osage orange, which is used as mosquito repellent and grown throughout the United States as a hedging plant. It is dioecious, with male and female flowers borne on separate plants.

<i>Ceratomia hageni</i> Species of moth

Ceratomia hageni, the Osage orange sphinx or Hagen's sphinx, is a hawk moth in the family Sphingidae. The species was first described by Augustus Radcliffe Grote in 1874.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Monkey orange</span> Index of plants with the same common name

Monkey orange is a common name for several trees that produce fruits that are superficially similar to orange (citrus).

<i>Annona senegalensis</i> Species of plant

Annona senegalensis, commonly known as African custard-apple, wild custard apple, wild soursop, abo ibobo, sunkungo, and dorgot is a species of flowering plant in the custard apple family, Annonaceae. The specific epithet, senegalensis, translates to mean "of Senegal", the country where the type specimen was collected.

<i>Mangifera indica</i> Species of flowering plant in the cashew family Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica, commonly known as mango, is an evergreen species of flowering plant in the family Anacardiaceae. It is a large fruit tree, capable of growing to a height and width of 30 m (100 ft). There are two distinct genetic populations in modern mangoes – the "Indian type" and the "Southeast Asian type".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pomiferin</span> Chemical compound

Pomiferin is a prenylated isoflavone that can be found along with osajin in the fruits and female flowers of the osage orange tree.

References

  1. ↑ Stritch, L. (2018). "Maclura pomifera". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2018: e.T61886714A61886723. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-1.RLTS.T61886714A61886723.en . Retrieved October 15, 2022.
  2. ↑ NatureServe (December 6, 2024). "Maclura pomifera| NatureServe Explorer". NatureServe Explorer. Arlington, Virginia. Retrieved December 23, 2024.
  3. ↑ "Maclura pomifera (Raf.) C.K. Schneid". Tropicos. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
  4. ↑ "The Plant List". The Plant List. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
  5. ↑ Boggs, Joe (October 15, 2021). "Bois D'Arc". Buckeye Yard & Garden Online. Ohio State University. Retrieved March 26, 2023.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Wynia, Richard L. (March 2011). "Plant fact sheet: Osage orange, Maclura pomifera (Rafin.)" (PDF). US Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. Retrieved October 25, 2017.
  7. ↑ Jesse, Laura; Lewis, Donald (October 24, 2014). "Hedge Apples for Home Pest Control?". Horticulture & Home Pest News. Iowa State University of Science and Technology. Retrieved January 29, 2016.
  8. ↑ Wayman, Dave (March 1985). "The Osage Orange Tree: Useful and Historically Significant". Mother Earth News. Retrieved January 29, 2016.
  9. 1 2 Murphy, Serena (2018). "Seed Dispersal in Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera) by Squirrels (Sciurus spp.)". American Midland Naturalist. 180 (2): 312–317. doi:10.1674/0003-0031-180.2.312. S2CID   92491077.
  10. 1 2 Sinnott-Armstrong, Miranda A.; Deanna, Rocio; Pretz, Chelsea; Liu, Sukuan; Harris, Jesse C.; Dunbar-Wallis, Amy; Smith, Stacey D.; Wheeler, Lucas C. (March 2022). "How to approach the study of syndromes in macroevolution and ecology". Ecology and Evolution. 12 (3): e8583. Bibcode:2022EcoEv..12E8583S. doi:10.1002/ece3.8583. ISSN   2045-7758. PMC   8928880 . PMID   35342598.
  11. ↑ "Maclura pomifera". Germplasm Resources Information Network . Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture . Retrieved January 30, 2016.
  12. ↑ Bobick, James (2004). The Handy Biology Answer Book. Detroit, Michigan: Visible Ink Press. p. 178. ISBN   1578593034 . Retrieved January 30, 2016.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Wynia, Richard (March 2011). "Plant fact sheet for Osage orange (Maclura pomifera)" (PDF). Manhattan, Kansas: USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, Manhattan Plant Materials Center. Retrieved December 16, 2015.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Keeler, Harriet L. (1900). Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 258–262.
  15. ↑ Barlow, Connie. "Anachronistic fruits and the ghosts who haunt them". Arnoldia 61, no. 2 (2001): 14–21.
  16. ↑ Michael L. Ferro. "A Cultural and Entomological Review of the Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera (Raf.) Schneid.) (Moraceae) and the Origin and Early Spread of 'Hedge Apple' Folklore". Southeastern Naturalist, 13(m7), 1–34, (1 January 2014)
  17. 1 2 "Osage Oranges Take a Bough". Smithsonian Magazine. March 2004. p. 35.
  18. ↑ Giannetto, Raffaella (2021). The culture of cultivation: recovering the roots of landscape architecture. Abingdon, Oxfordshire & New York: Routledge. ISBN   978-0367356422.
  19. ↑ Dillon, Richard (2003). Meriwether Lewis. Lafayette (California): Great West Books. p. 95. ISBN   0944220169 . Retrieved January 30, 2016.
  20. ↑ Rollings, Willard Hughes (2005). The Comanche . Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. p.  25. ISBN   978-0-7910-8349-9.
  21. 1 2 Connie Barlow. Anachronistic Fruits and the Ghosts Who Haunt Them Archived 2007-01-06 at the Wayback Machine . Arnoldia , vol. 61, no. 2 (2001)
  22. ↑ "Osage Orange | the Wood Database - Lumber Identification (Hardwood)".
  23. 1 2 3 4 5 Barlow, Connie (2002). "The Enigmatic Osage Orange". The Ghosts of Evolution, Nonsensical Fruit, Missing Partners, and Other Ecological Anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. p. 120. ISBN   0786724897 . Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  24. 1 2 3 Burton, J D (1990). "Maclura pomifera". In Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H. (eds.). Hardwoods. Silvics of North America. Vol. 2. Washington, D.C.: United States Forest Service (USFS), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Retrieved October 5, 2012– via Southern Research Station.
  25. ↑ "Tree Information". Virginia Big Trees. Retrieved November 18, 2022.
  26. ↑ "The mystery of Patrick Henry's osage-orange: which enigma is greater; the age of the national champion or how it got to Virginia? - Free Online Library". www.thefreelibrary.com. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
  27. ↑ "Osage-orange - VA". American Forests. Retrieved November 19, 2022.
  28. ↑ Allen Bush. The Undaunted and Undented Osage Orange.
  29. ↑ Bronaugh, Whit (2010). "The Trees That Miss The Mammoths". American Forests. 115 (Winter): 38–43.
  30. ↑ Boone, Madison J.; Davis, Charli N.; Klasek, Laura; del Sol, Jillian F.; Roehm, Katherine; Moran, Matthew D. (March 11, 2015). "A Test of Potential Pleistocene Mammal Seed Dispersal in Anachronistic Fruits using Extant Ecological and Physiological Analogs". Southeastern Naturalist. 14 (1): 22–32. doi:10.1656/058.014.0109. S2CID   86809830.
  31. 1 2 Jauron, Richard (October 10, 1997). "Facts and Myths Associated with "Hedge Apples"". Horticulture and Home Pest News. Iowa State University. Retrieved October 22, 2014.
  32. ↑ Murphy, Serena, Virginia Mitchell, Jessa Thurman, Charli N. Davis, Mattew D. Moran, Jessica Bonumwezi, Sophie Katz, Jennifer L. Penner, and Matthew D. Moran. "Seed Dispersal in Osage Orange (Maclura pomifera) by Squirrels (Sciurus spp.)." The American Midland Naturalist 180, no. 2 (2018): 312-317. Harvard
  33. ↑ Peattie, Donald Culross (1953). A Natural History of Western Trees. New York: Bonanza Books. p. 482.
  34. ↑ Tyler, Jack D (March 1992). "Nesting Ecology of the Loggerhead Shrike in Southwestern Oklahoma". The Wilson Bulletin. 104 (1): 95–104. JSTOR   4163119.
  35. ↑ Toensmeier, Eric (2016). The Carbon Farming Solution: A Global Toolkit of Perennial Crops and Regenerative Agriculture Practices for Climate Change Mitigation and Food Security. Chelsea Green Publishing. p. 230. ISBN   978-1-60358-571-2.
  36. ↑ Grandtner, Miroslav M. (2005). "Maclura pomifera". Elsevier's Dictionary of Trees, Volume 1: North America. Amsterdam: Elsevier. p. 500. ISBN   0080460186 . Retrieved January 30, 2016.
  37. ↑ Darji, K; Miglis, C; Wardlow, A; Abourashed, E. A (2013). "HPLC Determination of Isoflavone Levels in Osage Orange from the United States Midwest and South". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 61 (28): 6806–6811. doi:10.1021/jf400954m. PMC   3774050 . PMID   23772950.
  38. ↑ Smith, Jeffrey L.; Perino, Janice V. (1981). "Osage orange (Maclura pomifera): History and economic uses" (PDF). Economic Botany . 35 (1): 24–41. doi:10.1007/BF02859211. ISSN   0013-0001. JSTOR   4254245. S2CID   35716036. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 28, 2020. Retrieved September 17, 2024.
  39. ↑ R. Douglas Hurt Forestry of the Great Plains, 1902–1942
  40. ↑ Kemp, Bill (May 31, 2015). "Hedgerows no match for bulldozers in postwar years". The Pantagraph . Retrieved April 18, 2016.
  41. ↑ "Schooner Sultana". Sultanaprojects.org. Archived from the original on March 13, 2014. Retrieved February 24, 2014.
  42. ↑ Cullina, William (2002). Native Trees, Shrubs, & Vines: A Guide to Using, Growing, and Propagating North American Woody Plants . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. p.  136. ISBN   0618098585 . Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  43. 1 2 Grout, Pam. Kansas Curiosities: Quirky Characters, Roadside Oddities & Other Offbeat Stuff. Guilford, Conn: Globe Pequot Press, 2002.
  44. ↑ Kays, Jonathan (October 2010). "Heating with Wood" (PDF). University of Maryland Extension. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2015. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  45. ↑ Prestemon, Dean R. (August 1998). "Firewood Production and Use" (PDF). Forestry Extension Notes. Iowa State University Extension Service. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  46. ↑ Kuhns, Michael; Schmidt, Tom. "Heating With Wood: Species Characteristics and Volumes". Utah State University Extension. Retrieved January 31, 2016.
  47. ↑ Joe Duggan (November 20, 2018). "A block of wood and a waterfowl dream". Lincoln Journal Star. Retrieved November 16, 2018.
  48. ↑ Ogg, Barbara. "Facts and Myths of Hedge Apples". University of Nebraska Lincoln . Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  49. ↑ Nelson, Jennifer. "Osage Orange – Maclura pomifera". University of Illinois. Archived from the original on November 17, 2016. Retrieved November 11, 2013.
  50. ↑ "Maclura Pomifera (search result)". Native American Ethnobotany Database. University of Michigan–Dearborn. Retrieved December 24, 2015.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.