Gomphothere

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Gomphothere
Temporal range: 28–0.01  Ma
Gophotherium at AMNH.jpg
Specimen of Gomphotherium productum at the American Museum of Natural History
Stegomastodon CCB.JPG
Notiomastodon platensis Centro Cultural del Bicentenario de Santiago del Estero in Argentina
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Superfamily:† Gomphotherioidea
Family:† Gomphotheriidae
(Hay, 1922) A. Cabrera 1929
Genera

Gomphotheres are an extinct group of proboscideans related to modern elephants. They were widespread across Afro-Eurasia and North America during the Miocene and Pliocene epochs and dispersed into South America during the Pleistocene as part of the Great American Interchange. Gomphotheres are a paraphyletic group that is ancestral to Elephantidae, which contains modern elephants, as well as Stegodontidae. While most famous forms such as Gomphotherium had long lower jaws with tusks, which is the ancestral condition for the group, some later members developed shortened (brevirostrine) lower jaws with either vestigial or no lower tusks, looking very similar to modern elephants, an example of parallel evolution, which outlasted the long-jawed gomphotheres. By the end of the Early Pleistocene, gomphotheres became extinct in Afro-Eurasia, with the last two genera, Cuvieronius ranging from southern North America to western South America, and Notiomastodon having a wide range over most of South America until the end of the Pleistocene around 12,000 years ago, when they became extinct following the arrival of humans.

The name "gomphothere" comes from Ancient Greek γόμφος (gómphos), "peg, pin; wedge; joint" plus θηρίον (theríon), "beast".

Description

Life restoration of Gomphotherium Knight Gomphotherium.jpg
Life restoration of Gomphotherium
Life restoration of Cuvieronius, a brevirostrine gomphothere Cuvieronius hyodon Mexico.png
Life restoration of Cuvieronius , a brevirostrine gomphothere

Gomphotheres differed from elephants in their tooth structure, particularly the chewing surfaces on the molar teeth. The teeth are considered to be bunodont, that is, having rounded cusps. [1] They are thought to have chewed differently from modern elephants, using an oblique movement (combining back to front and side to side motion) over the teeth rather than the proal movement (a forwards stroke from the back to the front of the lower jaws) used by modern elephants and stegodontids. [2] Like modern elephants and other members of Elephantimorpha, gomphotheres had horizontal tooth replacement, where teeth would progressively migrate towards the front of the jaws before they were taken the place of by more posterior teeth. Unlike modern elephants, many gomphotheres retained permanent premolar teeth [3] though they were absent in some gomphothere genera. [4] Earlier gomphotheres had lower jaws with an elongate mandibular symphysis and lower tusks, the primitive condition for members of Elephantimorpha. Later members developed shortened (brevirostrine) lower jaws and/or vestigial or no lower tusks, a convergent process that occurred multiple times among gomphotheres, as well as other members of Elephantimorpha. [4] The incisors and long lower jaws of primitive gomphotheres were likely used for cutting vegetation, while brevirostrine gomphotheres relied on their trunks to acquire food similar to modern elephants. [5]

Taxonomy

"Gomphotheres" are assigned to their own family, Gomphotheriidae, but are widely agreed to be a paraphyletic group. The families Choerolophodontidae and Amebelodontidae (which includes "shovel tuskers" with flattened lower tusks like Platybelodon ) are sometimes considered gomphotheres sensu lato, [6] [7] [8] though some authors argue that Amebelodontidae should be sunk into Gomphotheriidae. [9] Gomphotheres are divided into two informal groups, "trilophodont gomphotheres", and "tetralophodont gomphotheres". "Tetralophodont gomphotheres" are distinguished from "trilophodont gomphotheres" by the presence of four ridges on the fourth premolar and on the first and second molars, rather than the three present in trilophodont gomphotheres. [6] Some authors choose to exclude "tetralophodont gomphotheres" from Gomphotheriidae, and instead assign them to the group Elephantoidea. [6] "Tetralophodont gomphotheres" are thought to have evolved from "trilophodont gomphotheres", and are suggested to be ancestral to Elephantidae, the group which contains modern elephants, as well as Stegodontidae. [10]

Ecology

Gomphotheres are generally supposed to have been flexible feeders, with the various species having differing browsing, mixed feeding and grazing diets, with the dietary preference of individual species and populations being shaped by local factors such as climactic conditions and competition. [11] Analysis of the tusks of a male Notiomastodon individual suggest that it underwent musth, similar to modern elephants. [12] Notiomastiodon is also suggested to have lived in social family groups, like modern elephants. [13]

Evolutionary history

Gomphotheres originated in Afro-Arabia during the mid-Oligocene, with remains from the Shumaysi Formation in Saudi Arabia dating to around 29-28 million years ago. Gomphotheres were uncommon in Afro-Arabia during the Oligocene. [14] Gomphotheres arrived in Eurasia after the connection of Afro-Arabia and Eurasia during the Early Miocene around 19 million years ago, [15] in what is termed the "Proboscidean Datum Event". Gomphotherium arrived in North America around 16 million years ago, [16] and is suggested to be the ancestor of later New World gomphothere genera. [17] "Trilophodont gomphotheres" dramatically declined during the Late Miocene, likely due to the increasing C4 grass-dominated habitats, [15] while during the Late Miocene "tetralophodont gomphotheres" were abundant and widespread in Eurasia, where they represented the dominant group of proboscideans. [18] All trilophodont gomphotheres, with the exception of the Asian Sinomastodon , became extinct in Eurasia by the beginning of the Pliocene, [19] along with the global extinction of the "shovel tusker" amebelodontids. [20] The last gomphotheres in Africa, represented by the "tetralophodont gomphothere" genus Anancus , became extinct around the end of the Pliocene and beginning of the Pleistocene. [21] The New World gomphothere genera Notiomastodon and Cuvieronius dispersed into South America during the Pleistocene, around or after 2.5 million years ago as part of the Great American Biotic Interchange due to the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. [22] The last gomphothere native to Europe, Anancus arvernensis [23] became extinct during the Early Pleistocene, around 1.6–2 million years ago [24] [25] Sinomastodon became extinct at the end of the Early Pleistocene, around 800,000 years ago. [26]

The extinction of gomphotheres in Afro-Eurasia has generally been supposed to be the result the expansion of Elephantidae and Stegodon. [19] [27] The morphology of elephantid molars being more efficient than gomphotheres in consuming grass, which became more abundant during the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs. [27] In the New World, gomphotheres did not become extinct until shortly after the arrival of humans to the Americas, approximately 12,000 years ago, as part of the Late Pleistocene megafauna extinctions of most large mammals across the Americas. Bones of the last gomphothere genera, Cuvieronius and Notiomastodon, dating to shortly before their extinction have been found associated with human artifacts, suggesting that hunting may have played a role in their extinction. [22]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Proboscidea</span> Order of elephant-like mammals

Proboscidea is a taxonomic order of afrotherian mammals containing one living family (Elephantidae) and several extinct families. First described by J. Illiger in 1811, it encompasses the elephants and their close relatives. Proboscideans include some of the largest known land mammals. The largest land mammal of all time may have been a proboscidean; the elephant Palaeoloxodon namadicus has been estimated to be up to 5.2 m (17.1 ft) at the shoulder and may have weighed up to 22 t, surpassing the paraceratheres, the otherwise largest known land mammals, though this estimate was made based on a single fragmentary femur and is speculative. The largest extant proboscidean is the African bush elephant, with a record of size of 4 m (13.1 ft) at the shoulder and 10.4 t. In addition to their enormous size, later proboscideans are distinguished by tusks and long, muscular trunks, which were less developed or absent in early proboscideans.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mastodon</span> Extinct genus of proboscideans

A mastodon is a member of the genus Mammut, which strictly defined, was endemic to North America and lived from the late Miocene to the early Holocene. Mastodons belong to the order Proboscidea, the same order as elephants and mammoths. Mammut is the type genus of the extinct family Mammutidae, which diverged from the ancestors of modern elephants at least 27-25 million years ago, during the Oligocene.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elephantidae</span> Family of mammals

Elephantidae is a family of large, herbivorous proboscidean mammals collectively called elephants and mammoths. These are large terrestrial mammals with a snout modified into a trunk and teeth modified into tusks. Most genera and species in the family are extinct. Only two genera, Loxodonta and Elephas, are living.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mammutidae</span> Extinct family of mammals

Mammutidae is an extinct family of proboscideans belonging to Elephantimorpha. It is best known for the mastodons, which inhabited North America from the Late Miocene until their extinction at beginning of the Holocene, around 11,000 years ago. The earliest fossils of the group are known from the Late Oligocene of Africa, around 24 million years ago, and fossils of the group have also been found across Eurasia. The name "mastodon" derives from Greek, μαστός "nipple" and ὀδούς "tooth", referring to their characteristic teeth.

<i>Gomphotherium</i> Extinct genus of elephant-like mammals

Gomphotherium is an extinct genus of gomphothere proboscidean from the Neogene of Eurasia, Africa and North America. The genus is probably paraphyletic.

<i>Anancus</i> Genus of proboscideans

Anancus is an extinct genus of "tetralophodont gomphothere" native to Afro-Eurasia, that lived from the Tortonian stage of the late Miocene until its extinction during the Early Pleistocene, roughly from 8.5–2 million years ago.

<i>Cuvieronius</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Cuvieronius is an extinct New World genus of gomphothere which ranged from southern North America to western South America during the Pleistocene epoch. Among the last gomphotheres, it became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene, approximately 12,000 years ago, following the arrival of humans to the Americas.

<i>Stegomastodon</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Stegomastodon is an extinct genus of gomphotheres. It ranged throughout North America from the Pliocene, to the Early Pleistocene. The former South American species have been synonymized with Notiomastodon platensis.

<i>Mammuthus meridionalis</i> Extinct species of mammal

Mammuthus meridionalis, sometimes called the southern mammoth, is an extinct species of mammoth native to Eurasia, including Europe, during the Early Pleistocene, living from around 2.5 million years ago to 800,000 years ago.

<i>Sinomastodon</i> Extinct genus of gomphothere proboscidean

Sinomastodon is an extinct gomphothere genus known from the Late Miocene to Early Pleistocene of Asia, including China, Japan, Thailand, Myanmar, Indonesia and probably Kashmir.

<i>Tetralophodon</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Tetralophodon is an extinct genus of "tetralophodont gomphothere" belonging to the superfamily Elephantoidea, known from the Miocene of Afro-Eurasia.

<i>Rhynchotherium</i> Extinct genus of proboscid

Rhynchotherium is an extinct genus of proboscidea endemic to North America and Central America during the Miocene through Pliocene from 13.650 to 3.6 Ma, living for approximately 10 million years.

<i>Eubelodon</i> Extinct genus of proboscid

Eubelodon is an extinct genus of gomphothere which lived in North America during the Miocene Epoch. It contains a single species: Eubelodon morrilli.

<i>Notiomastodon</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Notiomastodon is an extinct genus of gomphothere proboscidean, endemic to South America from the Pleistocene to the beginning of the Holocene. Notiomastodon specimens reached a size similar to that of the modern Asian elephant. Like other brevirostrine gomphotheres such as Cuvieronius and Stegomastodon, Notiomastodon had a shortened lower jaw and lacked lower tusks, unlike more primitive gomphotheres like Gomphotherium.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Stegodontidae</span> Family of extinct elephant-like mammals

Stegodontidae is an extinct family of proboscideans from Africa and Asia from the Early Miocene to the Late Pleistocene. It contains two genera, the earlier Stegolophodon, known from the Miocene of Asia and the later Stegodon, from the Late Miocene to Late Pleistocene of Africa and Asia which is thought to have evolved from the former. The group is noted for their plate-like lophs on their teeth, which are similar to elephants and different from those of other extinct proboscideans like gomphotheres and mammutids, with both groups having a proal jaw movement utilizing forward strokes of the lower jaw. These similarities with modern elephants were probably convergently evolved. Like elephantids, stegodontids are thought to have evolved from gomphothere ancestors.

<i>Choerolophodon</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Choerolophodon is an extinct genus of proboscidean that lived during the Miocene of Eurasia and Africa. Fossils of Choerolophodon have been found in Africa, Southeast Europe, Turkey, Iraq, Iran, the Indian subcontinent, and China.

<i>Konobelodon</i> Extinct genus of mammals

Konobelodon is an extinct genus of amebelodont proboscidean from the Miocene of Africa, Eurasia and North America.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amebelodontidae</span> Extinct family of mammals

Amebelodontidae is an extinct family of large herbivorous proboscidean mammals related to elephants. They were formerly assigned to Gomphotheriidae, but recent authors consider them a distinct family. They are distinguished from other proboscideans by having flattened lower tusks and very elongate mandibular symphysis. The lower tusks could grow considerable size, with those of Konobelodon reaching 1.61 metres (5.3 ft) in length. Their molar teeth are typically trilophodont, and possessed posttrite conules. In the past, amebelodonts' shovel-like mandibular tusks led to them being portrayed scooping up water plants, however, dental microwear suggests that they were browsers and mixed feeders. The lower tusks have been proposed to have had a variety of functions depending on the species, including stripping bark, cutting through vegetation, as well as possibly digging. They first appeared in Africa during the Early Miocene, and subsequently dispersed into Eurasia and then North America. They became extinct by the beginning of the Pliocene. While some phylogenetic studies have recovered Amebelodontidae as a monophyletic group that forms the sister group to Gomphotheriidae proper, some authors have argued that Amebelodontidae may be polyphyletic, with it being suggested that the shovel-tusked condition arose several times independently within Gomphotheriidae, thus rendering the family invalid.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Choerolophodontidae</span> Extinct family of mammals

Choerolophodontidae is an extinct family of large herbivorous mammals that were closely related to elephants. Two genera are known, Afrochoerodon and Choerolophodon.

Eurybelodon is an extinct genus of proboscidean in the family Amebelodontidae. It lived in the Clarendonian age of the Miocene.

References

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