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Bullshit is a common English expletive which may be shortened to the euphemism bull or the initialism B.S. In British English, "bollocks" is a comparable expletive. It is mostly a slang term and a profanity which means "nonsense", especially as a rebuke in response to communication or actions viewed as deceptive, misleading, disingenuous, unfair or false. As with many expletives, the term can be used as an interjection, or as many other parts of speech, and can carry a wide variety of meanings. A person who excels at communicating nonsense on a given subject is sometimes referred to as a "bullshit artist" instead of a "liar".
Disinformation is misleading content deliberately spread to deceive people, or to secure economic or political gain and which may cause public harm. Disinformation is an orchestrated adversarial activity in which actors employ strategic deceptions and media manipulation tactics to advance political, military, or commercial goals. Disinformation is implemented through attacks that "weaponize multiple rhetorical strategies and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also truths, half-truths, and value judgements—to exploit and amplify culture wars and other identity-driven controversies."
Media literacy is an expanded conceptualization of literacy that includes the ability to access and analyze media messages, as well as create, reflect and take action—using the power of information and communication—to make a difference in the world. Media literacy applies to different types of media, and is seen as an important skill for work, life, and citizenship.
Hossein Derakhshan, also known as Hoder, is an Iranian-Canadian blogger, journalist, and researcher who was imprisoned in Tehran from November 2008 to November 2014. He is credited with starting the blogging revolution in Iran and is called the father of Persian blogging by many journalists. He also helped to promote podcasting in Iran. Derakhshan was arrested on November 1, 2008 and sentenced to 19½ years in prison on September 28, 2010. His sentence was reduced to 17 years in October 2013. He was pardoned by Iran's supreme leader and on November 19, 2014, was released from Evin prison.
Fact-checking is the process of verifying the factual accuracy of questioned reporting and statements. Fact-checking can be conducted before or after the text or content is published or otherwise disseminated. Internal fact-checking is such checking done in-house by the publisher to prevent inaccurate content from being published; when the text is analyzed by a third party, the process is called external fact-checking.
Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information. Misinformation and disinformation are not interchangeable terms: Misinformation can exist with or without specific malicious intent whereas disinformation is distinct in that the information is deliberately deceptive and propagated. Misinformation can include inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective or half-truths. In January 2024, the World Economic Forum identified misinformation and disinformation, propagated by both internal and external interests, to "widen societal and political divides" as the most severe global risks within the next two years.
Post-truth politics, also described as post-factual politics or post-reality politics, amidst varying academic and dictionary definitions of the term, refer to a recent historical period where political culture is marked by public anxiety about what claims can be publicly accepted facts.
Fake news or information disorder is false or misleading information claiming the aesthetics and legitimacy of news. Fake news often has the aim of damaging the reputation of a person or entity, or making money through advertising revenue. Although false news has always been spread throughout history, the term fake news was first used in the 1890s when sensational reports in newspapers were common. Nevertheless, the term does not have a fixed definition and has been applied broadly to any type of false information presented as news. It has also been used by high-profile people to apply to any news unfavorable to them. Further, disinformation involves spreading false information with harmful intent and is sometimes generated and propagated by hostile foreign actors, particularly during elections. In some definitions, fake news includes satirical articles misinterpreted as genuine, and articles that employ sensationalist or clickbait headlines that are not supported in the text. Because of this diversity of types of false news, researchers are beginning to favour information disorder as a more neutral and informative term.
Full Fact is a British charity, based in London, which checks and corrects facts reported in the news as well as claims which circulate on social media.
Truth Decay is a non-fiction book by Jennifer Kavanagh and Michael D. Rich. Published by the RAND Corporation on January 16, 2018, the book examines historical trends such as "yellow journalism" and "new journalism" to demonstrate that "truth decay" is not a new phenomenon in American society. The authors argue that the divergence between individuals over objective facts and the concomitant increase in the relative "volume and influence of opinion over fact" in civil and political discourse has historically proliferated American society and culminated in truth decay.
First Draft News was a project "to fight mis- and disinformation online" founded in 2015 by nine organizations brought together by the Google News Lab. It included Facebook, Twitter, the Open Society Foundations and several philanthropic organizations. In June 2022, First Draft announced it would be shutting down, with its mission continuing at the Information Futures Lab.
Fake news and similar false information is fostered and spread across India through word of mouth, traditional media and more recently through digital forms of communication such as edited videos, websites, blogs, memes, unverified advertisements and social media propagated rumours. Fake news spread through social media in the country has become a serious problem, with the potential of it resulting in mob violence, as was the case where at least 20 people were killed in 2018 as a result of misinformation circulated on social media.
An infodemic is a rapid and far-reaching spread of both accurate and inaccurate information about certain issues. The word is a portmanteau of information and epidemic and is used as a metaphor to describe how misinformation and disinformation can spread like a virus from person to person and affect people like a disease. This term, originally coined in 2003 by David Rothkopf, rose to prominence in 2020 during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Disinformation attacks are strategic deception campaigns involving media manipulation and internet manipulation, to disseminate misleading information, aiming to confuse, paralyze, and polarize an audience. Disinformation can be considered an attack when it occurs as an adversarial narrative campaign that weaponizes multiple rhetorical strategies and forms of knowing—including not only falsehoods but also truths, half-truths, and value-laden judgements—to exploit and amplify identity-driven controversies. Disinformation attacks use media manipulation to target broadcast media like state-sponsored TV channels and radios. Due to the increasing use of internet manipulation on social media, they can be considered a cyber threat. Digital tools such as bots, algorithms, and AI technology, along with human agents including influencers, spread and amplify disinformation to micro-target populations on online platforms like Instagram, Twitter, Google, Facebook, and YouTube.
Nolan Higdon is a critical media literacy scholar and media personality. He is also an author and university lecturer of history, education, and media studies. Higdon is a lecturer at University of California, Santa Cruz. Higdon is considered an expert in critical media literacy, podcasting, digital culture, higher education, journalism, fake news, and news media history. Higdon is frequently featured as an expert voice in documentaries and news outlets such as ABC, CBS, CNBC, NewsNation, NBC, New York Times, PBS, and the San Francisco Chronicle.
A truth sandwich is a technique in journalism to cover stories involving misinformation without unintentionally furthering the spread of false or misleading claims. It entails presenting the truth about a subject before covering misinformation, then ending a story by again presenting truth. Margaret Sullivan summarized it as "reality, spin, reality — all in one tasty, democracy-nourishing meal".
The Disinformation Project was a research group studying the effects of disinformation in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic in New Zealand. The research group was established in 2020 to combat disinformation during the COVID-19 pandemic but subsequently expanded its scope to cover other "conspiracy theory beliefs" including anti-vaccine, climate change denial, anti-immigration, the anti-gender movement, anti-Māori racism and hatred towards the LGBTQ+ community. The Disinformation Project also took an interest in monitoring neo-Nazism, far right activism, antisemitism and Islamophobia.
Global Disinformation Index (GDI) is a not-for-profit organisation based in the United Kingdom which aims to mitigate the spread of disinformation on the internet. The group utilises a system of ratings of news sources and websites to determine risk of disinformation. The group's efforts also include investigations into internet advertising, and the alleged use of disinformation in relation to COVID-19 featured on various websites. The group has faced scrutiny over potential political bias.
The belief and spread of misinformation occur for many reasons. Although often attributed to ignorance, it can also be explained by other factors such as moral values and motivated reasoning. This is because decision-making entails both the cognitive architecture of the individual as well as their social context.
References
- ↑ "Foreign Influence Operations and Disinformation". Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency. 2023. Retrieved 11 March 2024.
- ↑ Wardle, Claire; Derakhshan, Hossein (2017). "Information Disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making". Freedom of Expression. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
- ↑ Grech, Jacob (2023-03-27). "Personalised media consumption, malinformation and the nature of platforms - In conversation with Hossein Derakhshan". 3CL Foundation. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
- ↑ "Journalism, 'Fake News' and Disinformation: A Handbook for Journalism Education and Training". UNESCO. 2018-09-03. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
- ↑ Sullum, Jacob (22 March 2023). "The Crusade Against 'Malinformation' Explicitly Targets Inconvenient Truths". reason.com. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
- ↑ Wir, Andrey (March 16, 2023). "'Malinformation' and the Wrong Truth : By accepting the concept of "misleading truth," democratic society departs from its foundations". Discourse Magazine.
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