Military of the Bruneian Sultanate

Royal Brunei Armed Forces
Angkatan Bersenjata Diraja Brunei (Malay)
Right: Main flag Left: War flag
Active	1368–1888
Disbanded	1888 (de jure) 1906 (de facto) [a]
Country	Bruneian Sultanate / British Protectorate of Brunei (1888–1906)
Allegiance	Sultan of Brunei Queen Victoria (1888–1901) King Edward VII (1901–1906)
Type	army
Role	Military force (until 1888; 1906) [b]
Size	>300 soldiers
Mottos	ملايو اسلام براجا Melayu Islam Beraja Malay, Islam, Monarchy (1425–1888)
Colours	Yellow
Equipment	Many primarily Keris
Engagements	Bruneian Sultanate: Awang Alak Betatar's War Tondo War Castilian War Bruneian Civil War of 1660 Lanun War Pacification of Lanun Bruneian Civil War of 1826 Sarawak Uprising of 1836 Anglo-Bruneian War Langkon War Padas Damit War Simbulan: Battle of Gaya Pandasan War
Battle honours	War spoils
Commanders
De jure leader	Sultans of Brunei (1363–1888) Monarchs of the United Kingdom (1888–1906)
De facto leader	Wazirs British residents (1888–1906)
Notable commanders	Bendahara Sakam Abdul Hakkul Mubin Muhyiddin of Brunei Bolkiah Awang Jerambak

The Military of the Bruneian Sultanate (Malay : تنتيرا كسلطانن بروني‎, romanized: Tentera Kesultanan Brunei) officially the Royal Brunei Armed Forces (Malay : رايول بروناي آرميد فوس‎, romanized: Angkatan Bersenjata Diraja Brunei) was the land force of the Bruneian Sultanate from 1368 to 1906. ^[1]

History

Early history (1363–1408)

Artistic imagination of Raja Awang Alak Betatar later called Sultan Muhammad Shah.

The first battle between Brunei and foreign armies was the Sarawakian Igan Valley. The Igan River flowed through this valley and was located in the traditional lands of the Melanau-speaking people. There are two accounts of the fight: the first, more legendary, tells of a nine-month struggle between three Brunei heroes and Bilanapura, a genie that Jerambak finally defeated using a miraculous fish skin he stole from an ogre. According to the second, Awang Jerambak's Brunei men came up against Basiung and his 9,000-strong allied armies from Sambas, Matu, Sadung, and Sarikei. The Brunei army, aided by the Dayaks, overpowered Basiung's warriors despite their superior numbers; as a result, Igan was destroyed and war spoils were taken. Following this, Jerambak made Igan accept Awang Alak Betatar's dominance. ^[2]

The Bruneian soldiers persisted in their conquests, subduing Igan's allies, such as Sarikei, Rajang, Sadung, Sarawak, Tanjung Datu, and Lingga, and stealing and capturing the traditionally Melanau regions of Oya, Matu, and Mukah. They penetrated all the way to Sambas, where they took control of Pontianak, Sanggau, and Sambas itself. They also expanded their dominion over Borneo to the south and southwest. They overcame Banjar (now Banjarmasin) on the east coast and took over parts of northern Borneo, albeit the latter took longer because of the dispersed towns. ^[3] Awang Alak Betatar expanded the newly established Brunei territory by advancing his frontiers from the Tutong River to the Rejang river delta. ^[4]

According to Chinese historical accounts, including "Nan Hai Zhi, Volume 7," Brunei ruled over nine regions in the 13th and 14th centuries, which is consistent with the Syair Awang Semaun. It describes how Awang Alak Betatar expanded his domain to include Sungai Igan and then took five more provinces from Johor on Borneo's west coast: Sarawak, Samarahan, Sadong, Mukah, and Kalaka. With the acquisition, Brunei's colonial territories became a total of 14, in line with reports that date back to the 10th century. Due to the influence of the Srivijaya, these provinces had slipped out of Brunei's authority, but in the middle of the 14th century, Awang Alak Betatar regained them, solidifying Brunei's historical geographical reach. ^[5]

Brunei was still ruled by the Javanese, but according to "Ming Tai Zu Shi Lu, Volume 67," it confirmed its authority over 14 states. This figure is consistent with Brunei's oral traditions and corresponds with the country's 10th century geographical dominance, as documented in "Zhu Fan Zhi" (977). The myth, passed down orally, tells of a prince who, while searching for a missing spear, got married in each of the 14 states he went to, bearing sons who were subsequently made rulers of these communities. The Chinese accounts verify Brunei's historical authority over 14 territories, even with their mythological components. ^[6]

Golden age of Brunei (1408–1836)

Main articles: Castilian War, Bruneian Civil War of 1660, and Twenty Years' War

After the Bruneian Sultanate declared independence from Majapahit Empire in 1408, the Sultan, Sulaiman of Brunei re-established the Bruneian Sultanate's military.

A cropped portrait of Bolkiah.

A 15th-century Chinese shipwreck ^[7] containing hand cannons was found near Brunei during Bolkiah's reign, Bolkiah paid 40 Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting in Brunei, possibly introducing cannon casting. Those 40 Javanese introduced cannon technology to Brunei. ^[8]

Brunei then expanded into Borneo and parts of the Philippines which included Tondo in the Tondo War, establishing Maynila. ^[9]

In 1521, Antonio Pigafetta reported Brunei's military had a fleet of more than 100 boats (ships) which were involved in an attack with "a faction in the south". ^[10]

The military prior to the Castilian War of 1578, was still had a strong army and navy. But despite this, they lost two early battles against the Spaniards,^{[ citation needed ]} after the Spaniards captured Kota Batu, Saiful Rijal changed to country's capital to Saragua (Sarawak) temporarily, later they regained their strength after the Spanish force occupying the capital greatly weakened by an outbreak of cholera and dysentery. ^{[11] [12]} Before the Spanish retreated, the Spanish burned and destroyed the city's mosque. After just 72 days, the Spanish would later returned to Manila on 26 June.^{[ citation needed ]}

Bruneian forces fighting against Spanish forces

In 26 June 1578, (the same day as the Spanish retreat to Manila) the Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam fought against Bruneian defectors who defected to Spain under Pengiran Seri Ratna. The Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam would win the Battle of Muara and kill Pengiran Seri Ratna who was killed in battle.

During Muhammad Hasan's reign, Muhammad Hasan commanded the attack on Milau of the Kelabitic group in Sarawak, ^[13] to be carried out by Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela. ^[14] After the Bruneian troops put an end to the uprising, Milau returned to Brunei and submitted. ^[13]

It has been suggested that the insurrection of the Maruts (sic) - i.e. the Lun Bawangs - and Chinese had led to the Brunei Sultan requesting assistance from the Sulu sultanate to suppress the rebellion in 1658, which resulted in the Brunei Sultan ceding his territory of Kimanis until Tapean Durian to the Sultan of Sulu as a sign of gratitude. ^[15]

In 1660, the Bruneian Civil War would start and split into two forces: Abdul Hakkul Mubin and Muhyiddin. During the civil war, Muhyiddin was concerned that the civil war was dragging on for too long and asked the help of the Sultan of Sulu to send for his forces. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the latter's assistance. ^[16] During the civil war, Abdul Hakkul Mubin fled to Kinarut (in present-day Papar, Sabah, Malaysia) where, he stayed there for ten years, repelling repeated attacks by Sultan Muhyiddin. ^[16] They returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddin's forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Hakkul Mubin. ^[16] It also noted that Muhyiddin finally defeated Abdul Hakkul Mubin in Cermin Island, by of the purchasing of gunpowder, ^[17] which came from Jambi Sultanate.

The Sulu army was supposed to help Muhyiddin forces in Cermin Island, but when they arrived the Sulu army in their ships arrived just to watch Muhyiddin forces fight Abdul Hakkul Mubin forces instead of helping the Muhyiddin forces, they landed after the battle to take war booty and to enslaved prisoners. This would infuriated Muhyiddin, who ordered the Sulu army to leave without giving eastern Sabah to them. Brunei denied giving eastern Sabah to the Sulu Sultanate. There is no written evidence of the transfer, ^[18] and the civil war ended in 1673.

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin learned about the situation in Manila of the Philippines, due to it being Bruneian territory, he was not pleased. As a result, he gave command to attack Sultan Alimuddin in Manila with his forces under the command of Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela Awang Aliwaddin in 1769. ^[19] The mission didn't arrive in Manila until 1769 because the expedition's preparations took so long. Sultan Alimuddin had already departed Manila for Sulu, therefore Manila was under Spanish rule when the siege began. ^[20] The siege would go on to be a success as Manila was captured by the Brunei sultanate. ^[21]

The conflict over North Borneo, also known as Sabah, began after which a promise made by Sultan Muhyiddin to the Sultan of Sulu after Sulu helped him win the Brunei Civil War of 1660 that went in his favor. Sulu attacked Brunei in 1771 after he had become severely weakened. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin signed a deal with the British Empire in June 1774 to secure outside support. The British were looking for a storehouse along the way to Canton and received exclusive rights to the pepper trade in exchange for their military assistance. ^[22] When Sulu despatch a force under the command of Datu Teting to attack Balambangan in 1775, its leaders sought safety in Labuan after the British quickly established a presence in Brunei. ^[22] When the two forces clashed, Datu Teting surrendered and his troops fled back to Sulu after learning that the warriors of Brunei, led by Pengiran Temenggong Ampa, were far too strong for them to defeat. ^{[23] [24]} Thomas Forrest visited Brunei in February 1776. ^[19] Despite Labuan's offer, the British left Brunei in 1777 due to the financial collapse of Balambangan, losing the entire East India Company. ^{[22] [25]}

In 1788, a Sulu army attacked Kampong Sembulan as an attempt to invade Brunei. They were defeated by Sharif Amir who later became the caretaker of Kampong Sembulan. ^[26]

In 1826, the Bruneian Civil War would start all over again into two forces: Omar Ali Saifuddin II and Muhammad Alam. With Omar setting his capital in Kampong Burong Pingai and Muhammad Alam setting his at Chermin Island. The civil war would end in 1828 when Muhammad Alam was assassinated by assassins sent by Raja Isteri Nooralam, the mother of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien II and the half-sister of Muhammad Alam. ^[27]

In 1828, around the Brunei Bay and its surrounding area, the Bruneian navy and local flotillas attempted to intercept a major slave raiding party mostly succeeded as the Iranun fled to not risk high casualties. ^{[28] [29]}

Weakening (1836–1906)

The Jolly Batchelor fighting Moro pirates in 1843.

The power of the army was weakening due to many factors such as Moro pirates constantly raiding the Bornean coast and the Sea Dayak raids on the river made it difficult for Brunei to properly centralise the empire. ^[30]

The appointment of Mahkota as governor of Sarawak and the later Sarawak Uprising of 1836 ^[31] was one of the main leading factors to the empire's downfall as it led to the Sultan making a great political error in appointing Brooke as Rajah of Sarawak in 1841. ^[32]

At first James stayed loyal to the agreement, he fought pirates ^[33] and stabilised Sarawak however Brooke declared independence from Brunei in 1843, starting the Anglo-Bruneian War which was a British tactical victory however the Sultan succeeded in the long run as he eliminated dangerous political figures such as Pengiran Muda Hashim, Badruddin and Datu Patinggi Ali whose death led to fall of power for the Datu Patinggi wielders. ^[34]

The shrinking territories led to Abdul Momin, realising his nation would become extinct if they kept ceding territories, declared the "Amanat" ^[35] which was an oath between the Sultan, Wazirs, Manteris, and holders of Tulin rights not to cede or lease any remaining territories to the foreign powers ^{[36] [37]} and which was signed on 20 February 1885. ^[38]

But even so, it was already too late. Brunei's military effectiveness was weakened due to instability. Later one of the signatories named Pengiran Temenggong Pengiran Anak Hashim ceded Terusan shortly after, raising doubts about the Amanat's efficacy. Although their intentions were commendable, their shortcoming was that there was no consequence for defying them. This flaw would emphasise Amanat's failure to stop Brunei from shrinking.

Despite Brunei signing the Protectorate Agreement of 1888 technically officially ending Bruneian independence in de jure 1888; de facto 1906 ^[c] . Military activity technically still happened at most until 1915 and at least 1889. Which was the Padas Damit War, if including far offshoots or princes still loyal to the Sultan of Brunei, the Battle of Gaya Island and Pandasan War. All resulting in an eventual defeat. ^[39]

Organisation

In the early-mid period of Brunei, ^[d] the army could muster ~1,000–5,000 warriors. ^{[40] [41] [42] [43] [44] [45]} In the late period of Brunei, ^[e] the army could muster around an estimated more than ~6,000 warriors in total depending on the campaign. ^{[46] [47]} Which one battalion usually lead by a local chiefs who later on, became semi-autonomous. ^{[48] [49] [50] [46] [51] [46]} They mostly followed the same generic Malay warfare but more defensively.

Land forces

Infantry

The Bruneian Empire did not have a centralised government and they also did not have a conventional uniform system as it was very uncommon in the Malay World. However it was normal to see them wear the traditional baju melayu. John Hunt described to Stamford Raffles as: ^[52]

“The Malays are never without their weapons, which they wear habitually, even in times of peace. Their dress is light and simple, suited to the climate and their active habits. In war they rely more on agility and personal courage than on defensive armour.”

— John Hunt to Stamford Raffles, ^[53]

This is supported by Henry Keppel when says: ^[50]

“Clad in light garments, with kris and sword worn in the girdle, and perfectly unembarrassed in their movements.”

—  Henry Keppel, The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido (1846), ^[54]

Weaponry

Photograph of Malay firearms: (1) Long ornamented flintlock gun (senapang/senapan) (1a) Bamboo and rattan barrel cover. (2) Another flintlock gun (senapang/senapan). (3) Brass blunderbuss (pemuras).

Infantrymen were usually armed with traditional weapons like bows and arrows, ^[55] sundang, spears and taming shields. ^{[56] [57]}

No conventional firearms were known to be used until the reign of Bolkiah recorded by Antonio Pigafetta, as they were found in Palawan controlled by Brunei at the time which were istinggar. ^[58] However they also encountered Huochong from China though this was probably never used. ^[7] During the reign of Nasruddin he appointed a Minangkabau noblemen Dato' Godam from the Pagaruyung Kingdom to strengthen ties with the Pagaruyung. ^{[59] [48]} Which could have mean Brunei obtain the istinggar through trade with the Minangkabau. They also could have obtain the istinggar from the Sultanate of Gowa though this has no proof other than that Gowa controlled territory near the Bruneian holdings in North Borneo (modern day, Sabah). ^[60] After obtaining it, Bruneian blacksmiths learned to produce it themselves. ^{[61] [62]}

The first ever flintlock muskets began to be used with the arrival of the Dutch East India Company in Indonesia and Malacca. ^[63] Which the Malays depended on European powers, as no local metalsmiths were capable of producing such complex components resorting to buying flintlock mechanism from the Europeans. Flintlock firearms were different weapons as they were known as senapan or senapang, derived from the Dutch word snaphaan . In the gun-making regions of the Malay world, these senapan could be produced locally, with the barrel and wooden components crafted in the Malay world, dragon pistols called tarkul and pemuras were also used during this time. ^{[47] [64] [65] [66] [67]}

Bamboo and rattan barrel covering on top of their senapan were also exclusively used by Malays usually to keep them dry in wet weather. ^{[68] [69]}

Hulubalang

The Hulubalang (هولوبالڠ‎) were Malay knights and warlords. ^[70]

They wore royal court baju melayu, which consisted of a baju sikap on top of a white baju, a destar, sinjang or sarung and panding . ^[71] Adorned with a pedang or keris. ^[52]

The signing of the Treaty of Labuan on 18 December 1846; concluding the Anglo-Bruneian War. Showing the ceteria (left side, near the boatmen) and hulubalang and other Malay nobles (on platform left and right, near the Sultan)

Bentara

The Bentara (بنتارا‎) was an umbrella term for anyone below the rank of Hulubalang and above Ceteria.

Bentara was a term roughly translated as "servant". Typically, Bentaras were sons of aristocrats trained for future roles in either the military or civil administration. Depending on their path and status, they could be promoted to Hulubalang (knight or warlord) or Penghulu (town lord). If born into a Pembesar Empat Lipatan family and designated as an heir, they could advance further within the noble hierarchy. The role of Bentara had no direct equivalent in European feudal society, though functionally they combined aspects of a squire, herald, and serjeant-at-arms. Depending on age and duties, they could be likened to either a European squire or page. Bentaras often served as heralds and were frequently sent on diplomatic missions to foreign courts. ^[70]

Ceteria

The Ceteria (چيتيريا‎) were royal guards for the Sultan of Brunei. ^[70] Usually armed with spears and shields. ^{[56] [57]}

They wore baju melayu, which consisted of a white baju, a destar, sinjang or sarung and selempang acting as a belt. ^[71] Adorned with a pedang or keris. ^[52]

Pendekar

An 18th century depiction of either a Pendekar or Lasykar, probably the former.

The Pendekar (ڤنديكر‎) were skilled warriors of Malay descent or at least a part of ethnic groups related to or culturally similar to Malays, essentially a man-at-arms.

They wore baju melayu, which consisted of a baju sikap on top of a white baju, a destar, sinjang or sarung and selempang acting as a belt. ^[71] Adorned with a pedang or keris. ^[52]

Lashkar

Lashkar or Lasykar (لشكر‎) were foot sergeants of the army. ^[70]

They wore baju melayu, which consisted of a white baju, a destar, sinjang or sarung and selempang acting as a belt. ^[71] Adorned with a pedang or keris. ^[52]

Penjurit

The Penjurit were a general term for mercenaries. ^[70] This included Luzones, Moros and later Chinese and Europeans. ^{[72] [73] [74] [75]} The Penjurit were hired by governors only if needed. ^[76]

Serah dan Kerah

The "serah dan kerah" (سراه دان كراه‎) system was a term to refer to a traditional common feudal levy system used by Malay sultanates. ^{[77] [78]} They would be drafted into the army, temporarily abandoning their civilian duties. ^[70]

They wore baju melayu, which consisted of a white baju and seluar, a destar, sinjang or sarung ^[71]

Dyak troops

An illustration of Iban forces lead by Rentap resisting attacks from James Brooke forces at the Battle of Kerangan Peris

The Dyak troops ^[79] were Dusun, Dayaks, Melanau, Orang Ulu and other native non-Malay peoples, ^{[80] [2] [81]} they would act independently similar to the Bashi-bazouks who would sometimes rebel against the Empire. ^{[82] [15] [13]}

They would also be used by Malay lords ruling over frontier territories such as Datu Patinggi Ali in his uprising ^[83] and also used by James Brooke against his campaigns against Moro pirates and rebels such as Rentap and Syarif Masahor. ^[84]

Dyaks were familiar with guns, as bangkongs were recorded to have a few muskets. ^[85]

Artillery

Treaty of Labuan in 1846 with cannons visible.

The usage of artillery is very well known, Bolkiah started to use artillery when he paid 40 Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting possibly introducing cannon technology to Brunei. ^[8] With most cannons were made of bronze or brass ^{[86] [87]} and the earliest ones were breechloaders. ^[88] Michael Charney (2004) pointed out that early Malay swivel guns were breech-loaded. ^{[89] : 50} There is a trend toward muzzle-loading weapons during colonial era. ^[90] In 1578, during the Castilian War, Ottoman expeditionary forces began teaching Aceh, Brunei and other nearby Malay sultanates how to forge Ottoman cannons. ^[91]

In 1600 CE, lela cannons were becoming more common in the archipelago. Several renowned foundries of the Malay World were Terengganu in the Malay peninsula and Brunei and Banjarmasin in Borneo

Brunei was known for its foundries in the 19th century. Brass was the preferred metal as it was cheaper and easier to work compared to the related but harder alloy bronze, or iron. However, bronze is much stronger and was therefore more popular for use in making weapons. ^[92] The process used was cire perdue using terracotta and a wax mould. ^{[93] [92]}

Naval forces

Ships

Royal boat of Brunei, armed with swivel guns. Most likely depicting a Bruneian penjajap.

The Sultan of Brunei maintained naval forces, employing both sailors and privateers especially the Sama-Bajau ^{[94] [95] [96] [97]} and would often perform slave raiding often against Non-Muslims such as pagans and Christians. ^[98] Also according to a legend, before Muhammad Shah converted to Islam and became the Sultan of Brunei, he was a legendary pirate lord. Brunei continued to maintain a de-centralized navy by the 1840s. ^[99]

Malay Prahu warboat, 1863

Iban war prahu on Skerang (Skrang) river

Most seafearers depending on their background would often use Penjajap, Kumpit, ^[94] Kakap ^[100] , Apilan and kota mara proas and Bangkong; which was only used in riverine warfare. Penjajap were the more preferred ship by Malays and Bangkong was primarily used by Iban pirates which were usually outfitted Lela or Lantaka on their ships as most Bornean ships was fast, able to almost encircle an armada of exactly 40 Spanish galleons in the Castilian War ^[101] and also to bombard enemy settlements. ^[102] Most Bruneian ships flew either a pennon or swallowtail variant of the Bruneian flag; depending on the ship.

Kelasi

The Kelasi (English: Sailor) were Malay sailors who served under a nakhoda who served under laksamana. Most early sailors and privateers were armed with traditional weapons. With Antonio Pigafetta, describing pre-gunpowder era Bruneian and Visayan fleets armed, alongside swords and shields:

“They have many lances, bows and arrows, ^[55] blowpipes, and small shields...” — Primo viaggio intorno al mondo, ed. Andrea da Mosto (1894), p. 137.

Firearm began to be used by Bruneian sailors and captains during the reign of Bolkiah, when Antonio Pigafetta discovered istinggars in Palawan. ^[58] The introduction of Western firearms around the late 17th century and early 18th century, ^{[48] [103] [17]} which introduced the tarkul to the Malay World including Brunei, used by both pirates and sailors. ^{[67] [64]}

References

1. History Page 1 Royal Brunei Land Force Archived 20 February 2007 at the Wayback Machine
2. Yunos 2010, p. 2. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYunos2010 (help)
3. Yunos 2010, p. 3. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYunos2010 (help)
4. Yunos 2010, p. 1. sfn error: no target: CITEREFYunos2010 (help)
5. Haji Abdul Karim bin Haji Abdul Rahman 2016, p. 58. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHaji_Abdul_Karim_bin_Haji_Abdul_Rahman2016 (help)
6. Haji Abdul Karim bin Haji Abdul Rahman 2016, p. 57. sfn error: no target: CITEREFHaji_Abdul_Karim_bin_Haji_Abdul_Rahman2016 (help)
7. de Vienne, Marie-Sybille (2015). From the age of commerce to the 21st century. NUS Press. p. 50. ISBN   9789971698188.
8. Jalil, Ahmad Safwan (2012). South-east Asian cannon making in Negara Brunei Darussalam (MA thesis). Flinders University. pp. 10–11.
9. "Pre-colonial Manila". Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library. Malacañang Presidential Museum and Library Araw ng Maynila Briefers. Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office. 23 June 2015. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 27 April 2017.
10. Gin, Ooi Keat; King, Victor T. (29 July 2022). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Brunei. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-1-000-56864-6 – via Google Books.
11. Frankham, Steve (2008), Footprint Borneo, Footprint Guides, p. 278, ISBN   978-1-906098-14-8
12. Atiyah, Jeremy (2002), Rough guide to Southeast Asia, Rough Guide, p. 71, ISBN   978-1-85828-893-2
13. Awang, Mohd Jamil Al-Sufri (Pehin Orang Kaya Amar Diraja Dato Seri Utama Haji) (1997). Tarsilah Brunei: Zaman kegemilangan dan kemasyhuran (in Malay). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan Belia dan Sukan. p. 108.
14. "Pusat Sejarah Brunei – Sultan – Sultan Brunei". History-Centre.gov.bn. Retrieved 5 April 2023.
15. J Hunt Esq, ed. (1812), Sketch of Borneo or Pulo Kalamantan, vol. VIII, Bencoolen: Sumatran Mission Press, p. 10, retrieved 26 September 2010
16. "Civil war wrecks chaos in the country". BT.com.bn. The Brunei Times. Archived from the original on 14 June 2012. Retrieved 20 January 2012.
17. Asrul, Nurul Nadhirah Ahmad (11 December 2017). "Warkah Kesultanan Brunei yang tertua". Warkah Kesultanan Brunei yang tertua. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
18. Asbol, Awang. Persejarahan Brunei (in Malay).
19. Masa silam sarana masa depan: kumpulan kertas kerja Seminar Sejarah Brunei II (in Malay). Jabatan Pusat Sejarah, Kementerian Kebudayaan, Belia dan Sukan. 1999. p. 18. ISBN   978-99917-34-16-3.
20. al-Sufri (Haji), Awang Mohd Jamil (2002). Survival of Brunei: A Historical Perspective. Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports. p. 36. ISBN   978-99917-34-18-7.
21. 50 Years Historical Moments of Omar Ali Saifuddien Mosque, 1958-2008 (in Malay). Ministry of Religious Affairs, Negara Brunei Darussalam. 2008. p. 68. ISBN   978-99917-922-0-0.
22. Vienne, Marie-Sybille de (9 March 2015). Brunei: From the Age of Commerce to the 21st Century. NUS Press. p. 74. ISBN   978-9971-69-818-8.
23. "Pusat Sejarah Brunei - Sultan - Sultan Brunei". www.history-centre.gov.bn. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
24. History, Borneo (29 December 2014). "Borneo History: Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien I". Borneo History. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
25. al-Sufri (Haji), Awang Mohd Jamil (2002). Survival of Brunei: A Historical Perspective. Brunei History Centre, Ministry of Culture, Youth and Sports. p. 37. ISBN   978-99917-34-18-7.
26. Santos, Jason (5 December 2020). "History of Sembulan: home to remnants of ancient Brunei army Part 1". The Vibe.
27. Saunders 1994, p. 72. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaunders1994 (help)
28. Warren, James (31 December 2019), "Three. The Iranun and Balangingi Slaving Voyage: Middle Passages in the Sulu Zone", Many Middle Passages, University of California Press, pp. 52–71, retrieved 9 January 2026
29. Swift, Michael; Tarling, Nicholas (1964). "Piracy and Politics in the Malay World" . The Australian Quarterly. 36 (2): 109. doi:10.2307/20633968. ISSN   0005-0091.
30. James Francis Warren (1985). "The Prahus of the Sulu Zone" (PDF). Brunei Museum Journal. 6: 42–45.
31. "Sarawak Before 1841". sarawak.gov.my. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
32. History, Borneo (29 December 2014). "Borneo History: Raja Muda Hashim". Borneo History. Retrieved 23 July 2023.
33. Baring-Gould & Bampfylde, p. 103
34. "Gelaran Datu bermula zaman Brooke". www.utusansarawak.com.my (in Malay). 1 November 2022. Retrieved 5 January 2024.
35. Ooi 2015, p. 103. sfn error: no target: CITEREFOoi2015 (help)
36. Sidhu 2009, p. 9. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSidhu2009 (help)
37. Changder, Narayan (7 January 2023). Brunei: The Amazing Quiz Book. Changder Outline. p. 141.
38. Rabiqah Natasha Halim Binti Mohamed Yusof 2017, p. 56. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRabiqah_Natasha_Halim_Binti_Mohamed_Yusof2017 (help)
39. Bin Mohd Asi, Jeffri (2008). "1788 Simbulan: History of Sembulan Lama". Kajian Awal, Catatan Lisan dan Tarsilah Keluarga Besar.
40. Gin, Ooi Keat; King, Victor T. (29 July 2022). Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Brunei. Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-1-000-56864-6 – via Google Books.
41. Tomé Pires 1515. sfn error: no target: CITEREFTomé_Pires1515 (help)
42. Nicholl, Robert (1975). European sources for the history of the Sultanate of Brunei in the Sixteenth Century. Muzium Brunei. OCLC   4777019.
43. Blair & Robertson. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBlairRobertson (help)
44. Saunders, Graham (2003). A History of Brunei (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN   9781315029573.
45. Santos, Jason (5 December 2020). "History of Sembulan: home to remnants of ancient Brunei army Part 1". The Vibe.
46. James Brooke 1846. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJames_Brooke1846 (help)
47. Tarling, Nicholas (1999). The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-66370-0.
48. Saunders, Graham (2003). A History of Brunei (2nd ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN   9781315029573.
49. Andaya, Barbara Watson (1982). A History of Malaysia. New York: St. Martin's Press. pp. 76–77. ISBN   978-0-312-38120-2.
50. Keppel, Henry (1846). The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido
51. Nicholl, Robert (1975). European sources for the history of the Sultanate of Brunei in the Sixteenth Century. Muzium Brunei. OCLC   4777019.
52. "Hunt, John (1812–1848)", Sketch of Borneo or Pulo Kalamantan, Oxford University Press, 6 February 2018
53. "Hunt, John (1812–1848)", Sketch of Borneo or Pulo Kalamantan, Oxford University Press, 6 February 2018
54. "Hunt, John (1812–1848)", Sketch of Borneo or Pulo Kalamantan, Oxford University Press, 6 February 2018
55. de San Agustín, Gaspar (1698). Conquistas de las Islas Filipinas[Conquests of the Philippine Islands] (in Spanish). Spain. ISBN   8400040724.
56. Mundy 1846. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMundy1846 (help)
57. Hakim, Akmal (8 September 2021). "This Traditional Rattan Shield Was Historically Used By Malay Fighters, But Some Made Fun Of It". therakyatpost.com.
58. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
59. Jamil Al-Sufri 2019, p. 68. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJamil_Al-Sufri2019 (help)
60. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
61. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
62. Jalil, Ahmad Safwan (2012). South-east Asian cannon making in Negara Brunei Darussalam (MA thesis). Flinders University. pp. 10–11.
63. Lihat maklumat tentang Tuhfat al-Nafis di Malay Concordance Project.
64. Hasbullah, Wan Mohd Dasuki Wan (2014). "Manuskrip Ilmu Bedil Sebagai Sumber Etnosejarah Teknologi Senjata Api Melayu". Jurnal Kemanusiaan. 21: 53–71.
65. Egerton, W. (1880). An Illustrated Handbook of Indian Arms. W.H. Allen.
66. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
67. Azreem & https://anakmelayuperak.blogspot.com/2012/06/terakolsenjata-melayu-yang-digelapkan.html#:~:text=Terakol%20berbentuk%20seperti%20pistol%20dan%20ia%20adalah,Sepanyol%2C%20juga%20askar%20Brunei%20menentang%20Rajah%20Brooke. sfn error: no target: CITEREFAzreemhttps://anakmelayuperak.blogspot.com/2012/06/terakolsenjata-melayu-yang-digelapkan.html#:~:text=Terakol%2520berbentuk%2520seperti%2520pistol%2520dan%2520ia%2520adalah,Sepanyol%252C%2520juga%2520askar%2520Brunei%2520menentang%2520Rajah%2520Brooke (help)
68. Gardner, G. B. (1936). Keris and Other Malay Weapons. Singapore: Progressive Publishing Company.
69. Charney, Michael (2004). Southeast Asian Warfare, 1300–1900. Brill. ISBN   9789047406921.
70. Lisa Yip Shukye; Abdul Hamid, Jais (2012). Sejarah Politik Malaysia Sehingga Awal Abad Ke-20 (in Malay). Selangor: Penerbitan Multimedia Sdn. Bhd.
71. Mundy, Rodney (1846). Narrative of Events in Borneo and Celebes, Down to the Occupation of Labuan
72. Klein, M. A. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Storbritannien: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 251
73. Miller 1970, p. 95. sfn error: no target: CITEREFMiller1970 (help)
74. Royal Asiatic Society 1960, p. 292. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRoyal_Asiatic_Society1960 (help)
75. Lawrence Law (2020). PERANG MENENTANG KESULTANAN BRUNEI DI BAU PADA ABAD KE-19 (PDF) (in Malay). Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Batu Lintang.
76. Klein, M. A. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Storbritannien: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 251
77. Abdul Rahim, Naim Fikri (2021). Struktur Politik, Ekonomi dan Sosial dalam Kerajaan Melayu Trasional [Political, Economic, and Social Structure in Traditional Malay Kingdoms](PDF) (in Malay). National University of Malaysia.
78. Mohd Sayuti, Maryam Syafiqha; Omar, Jamilah (2017). "Nilai Kepimpinan Pembesar Empayar Melayu Melaka Kajian Berasaskan Teks Sulalatus Salatin" [Leadership Values of Nobles in the Malay Malacca Empire: A Study Based on the Sulalatus Salatin Text]. International Journal of the Malay Letters (in Malay). 5: 171–192. ISSN   2289-5000.
79. Marshall, Adrian G. (2015). Nemesis: The First Iron Warship and Her World. NUS Press. ISBN   9789971698225.
80. Metcalf, Peter (2010). The Life of the Longhouse: An Archaeology of Ethnicity. Cambridge University Press. p. 188. ISBN   978-0-521-11098-3.
81. Walker, John Henry (2016). "From Po-li to Rajah Brooke: Culture, Power and the Contest for Sarawak". Journal of Borneo-Kalimantan. 2 (2). doi: 10.33736/jbk.461.2016 .
82. Walker, John Henry (2016). "From Po-li to Rajah Brooke: Culture, Power and the Contest for Sarawak". Journal of Borneo-Kalimantan. 2 (2). doi: 10.33736/jbk.461.2016 .
83. Lawrence Law (2020). Perang Menentang Kesultanan Brunei di Bau Pada Abad KE-19 (PDF) (in Malay). Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Batu Lintang.
84. Pringle, Robert (1970). Rajahs and Rebels: The Ibans of Sarawak Under Brooke Rule, 1841–194. Cornell University Press. p. 103.
85. Marshall, Adrian G. (2015). Nemesis: The First Iron Warship and Her World. NUS Press. ISBN   9789971698225.
86. Ismail, Norain B.T. (2012). Peperangan dalam Historiografi Johor: Kajian Terhadap Tuhfat Al-Nafis. Kuala Lumpur: Akademi Pengajian Islam Universiti Malaya.
87. Charney, Michael (2004). Southeast Asian Warfare, 1300–1900. Brill. ISBN   9789047406921.
88. Ooi, Keat Gin (2004). Southeast Asia: A Historical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor. ABC-CLIO. ISBN   9781576077702.
89. Charney, Michael (2004). Southeast Asian warfare, 1300–1900. BRILL. ISBN   9789047406921.
90. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
91. Cambridge illustrated atlas, warfare: Renaissance to revolution, 1492–1792 by Jeremy Black p.16
92. 1 2 Teoh, Alex Eng Kean (2005). The Might of the Miniature Cannon A treasure of Borneo and the Malay Archipelago. Asean Heritage.
93. Robertson, James Alexander. "The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898, Volume XXXIII, 1519-1522, by Antonio Pigafetta". Project Gutenberg . June 5, 2013
94. Hawkins, Clifford W. (2009). Boats, Boatbuilding, and Fishing in Malaysia. the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. ISBN   9789679948448.
95. Treacher, W. H.: British Borneo: sketches of Brunai, Sarawak, Labuan, and North Borneo. 1891. Topics Sabah. Publisher Singapore, Govt. print. dept
96. "The Mirror Island and The Civil War". The Mirror Island and The Civil War. Retrieved 7 April 2023.
97. Alfred Kemp Pallasen (1985). Culture Contact and Language Convergence (PDF). LSP Special Monograph Issue 24. Linguistic Society of the Philippines. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 May 2015.
98. Klein, M. A. (2014). Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition. Storbritannien: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 251
99. Saunders 2013, p. 77. sfn error: no target: CITEREFSaunders2013 (help)
100. Vogel, Jaap (2016). "J.C. Van Leur, 1908-1942: A Short Life History". In Blussé, Leonard; Gaastra, Femme S. (eds.). On the Eighteenth Century as a Category of Asian History: Van Leur in Retrospect. Routledge. ISBN   9781351913720.
101. Oxford Business Group 2009 , p. 9 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFOxford_Business_Group2009 (help)
102. Rahman, Muhammad A. (1966). Rangkaian tawarikh negeri sabah (in Malay). Al-Ahmadiah Press. p. 55.
103. Keppel, Captain (1846). "The Expedition to Borneo of H.M.S. Dido for the Suppression of Piracy: With Extracts From the Journal of James Brooke, Esq., of Sarawak". The Daily Brunei Resources. Retrieved 1 September 2009.

• Hussainmiya, B. A. (1 January 2012). "Royal Brunei Armed Forces 50th anniversary commemorative history". RBAF 50th Golden Anniversary Commemorative Book. South Eastern University of Sri Lanka.
• Guillemard, Francis Henry Hill (1908). Volume 2 of Stanford's compendium of geography and travel - Malaysia and the Pacific Archipelagoes. Edward Stanford.

Notes

1. Minor involvement via Simbulan in 1915
2. Minor involvement via Simbulan in 1915
3. Minor involvement via Simbulan in 1915
4. 14th century until 17th century
5. late 17th century until 19th century