Military of the Bruneian Sultanate

Royal Brunei Armed Forces
Angkatan Bersenjata Diraja Brunei (Malay)
Right: Main flag Left: War flag
Active	1368–1888
Disbanded	1888 (de jure) 1906 (de facto)
Country	Bruneian Sultanate / British Protectorate of Brunei (1888–1906)
Allegiance	Sultan of Brunei Queen Victoria (1888–1901) King Edward VII (1901–1906)
Type	army
Role	Military force (until 1888; 1906)
Size	>300 soldiers
Mottos	ملايو اسلام براجا Melayu Islam Beraja Malay, Islam, Monarchy (1425–1888)
Colours	Yellow
Equipment	Many primarily Keris
Engagements	Bruneian Sultanate: Bruneian–Igan War Tondo War Castilian War Bruneian Civil War of 1660 Twenty Years' War Pacification of Lanun Bruneian Civil War of 1826 Sarawak Uprising of 1836 Anglo-Bruneian War
Battle honours	War spoils
Commanders
De jure leader	Sultans of Brunei (1363–1888) Monarchs of the United Kingdom (1888–1906)
De facto leader	Wazirs British residents (1888–1906)
Notable commanders	Bendahara Sakam Abdul Hakkul Mubin Muhyiddin of Brunei Bolkiah Awang Jerambak

The Military of the Bruneian Sultanate (Malay : تنتيرا كسلطانن بروني‎, romanized: Tentera Kesultanan Brunei) officially the Royal Brunei Armed Forces (Malay : رايول بروناي آرميد فوس‎, romanized: Angkatan Bersenjata Diraja Brunei) was the land force of the Bruneian Sultanate from 1368 to 1906. ^[1]

History

Early history (1363–1408)

The first known battle between Brunei and foreign armies was the Battle of the Igan Valley. The Igan River flowed through this valley and was located in the traditional lands of the Melanau-speaking people. There are two accounts of the fight: the first, more legendary, tells of a nine-month struggle between three Brunei heroes and Bilanapura, a genie that Jerambak finally defeated using a miraculous fish skin he stole from an ogre. According to the second, Awang Jerambak's Brunei men came up against Basiung and his 9,000-strong allied armies from Sambas, Matu, Sadung, and Sarikei. The Brunei army, aided by the Dayaks, overpowered Basiung's warriors despite their superior numbers; as a result, Igan was destroyed and war spoils were taken. Following this, Jerambak made Igan accept Awang Alak Betatar's dominance. ^[2]

The Bruneian soldiers persisted in their conquests, subduing Igan's allies, such as Sarikei, Rajang, Sadung, Sarawak, Tanjung Datu, and Lingga, and stealing and capturing the traditionally Melanau regions of Oya, Matu, and Mukah. ^[3]

Golden age of Brunei (1408–1836)

Main articles: Castilian War, Bruneian Civil War of 1660, and Twenty Years' War

After the Bruneian Sultanate declared independence from Majapahit Empire in 1408, the Sultan, Sulaiman of Brunei re-established the Bruneian Sultanate's military.

A cropped portrait of Bolkiah.

A 15th-century Chinese shipwreck ^[4] containing hand cannons was found near Brunei during Bolkiah's reign, Bolkiah paid 40 Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting in Brunei, possibly introducing cannon casting. Those 40 Javanese introduced cannon technology to Brunei. ^[5]

Brunei then expanded into Borneo and parts of the Philippines which included Tondo in the Tondo War, establishing Maynila. ^[6]

In 1521, Antonio Pigafetta reported Brunei's military had a fleet of more than 100 boats (ships) which were involved in an attack with "a faction in the south". ^[7]

The military prior to the Castilian War of 1578, was still had a strong army and navy. But despite this, they lost two early battles against the Spaniards,^{[ citation needed ]} after the Spaniards captured Kota Batu, Saiful Rijal changed to country's capital to Saragua (Sarawak) temporarily, later they regained their strength after the Spanish force occupying the capital greatly weakened by an outbreak of cholera and dysentery. ^{[8] [9]} Before the Spanish retreated, the Spanish burned and destroyed the city's mosque. After just 72 days, the Spanish would later returned to Manila on 26 June.^{[ citation needed ]}

Bruneian forces fighting against Spanish forces

In 26 June 1578, (the same day as the Spanish retreat to Manila) the Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam fought against Bruneian defectors who defected to Spain under Pengiran Seri Ratna. The Bruneian forces under Bendahara Sakam would win the Battle of Muara and kill Pengiran Seri Ratna who was killed in battle.

During Muhammad Hasan's reign, Muhammad Hasan commanded the attack on Milau of the Kelabitic group in Sarawak, ^[10] to be carried out by Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela. ^[11] After the Bruneian troops put an end to the uprising, Milau returned to Brunei and submitted. ^[10]

It has been suggested that the insurrection of the Maruts (sic) - i.e. the Lun Bawangs - and Chinese had led to the Brunei Sultan requesting assistance from the Sulu sultanate to suppress the rebellion in 1658, which resulted in the Brunei Sultan ceding his territory of Kimanis until Tapean Durian to the Sultan of Sulu as a sign of gratitude. ^[12]

In 1660, the Bruneian Civil War would start and split into two forces: Abdul Hakkul Mubin and Muhyiddin. During the civil war, Muhyiddin was concerned that the civil war was dragging on for too long and asked the help of the Sultan of Sulu to send for his forces. He reportedly promised the land of eastern Sabah as a reward for the latter's assistance. ^[13] During the civil war, Abdul Hakkul Mubin fled to Kinarut (in present-day Papar, Sabah, Malaysia) where, he stayed there for ten years, repelling repeated attacks by Sultan Muhyiddin. ^[13] They returned to Brunei after a final attack by Muhyiddin's forces in which they failed to defeat Abdul Hakkul Mubin. ^[13] It also noted that Muhyiddin finally defeated Abdul Hakkul Mubin in Cermin Island, by of the purchasing of gunpowder, ^[14] which came from Jambi Sultanate.

The Sulu army was supposed to help Muhyiddin forces in Cermin Island, but when they arrived the Sulu army in their ships arrived just to watch Muhyiddin forces fight Abdul Hakkul Mubin forces instead of helping the Muhyiddin forces, they landed after the battle to take war booty and to enslaved prisoners. This would infuriated Muhyiddin, who ordered the Sulu army to leave without giving eastern Sabah to them. Brunei denied giving eastern Sabah to the Sulu Sultanate. There is no written evidence of the transfer, ^[15] and the civil war ended in 1673.

Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin learned about the situation in Manila of the Philippines, due to it being Bruneian territory, he was not pleased. As a result, he gave command to attack Sultan Alimuddin in Manila with his forces under the command of Pehin Orang Kaya Di-Gadong Seri Lela Awang Aliwaddin in 1769. ^[16] The mission didn't arrive in Manila until 1769 because the expedition's preparations took so long. Sultan Alimuddin had already departed Manila for Sulu, therefore Manila was under Spanish rule when the siege began. ^[17] The siege would go on to be a success as Manila was captured by the Brunei sultanate. ^[18]

The conflict over North Borneo, also known as Sabah, began after which a promise made by Sultan Muhyiddin to the Sultan of Sulu after Sulu helped him win the Brunei Civil War of 1660 that went in his favor. Sulu attacked Brunei in 1771 after he had become severely weakened. Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin signed a deal with the British Empire in June 1774 to secure outside support. The British were looking for a storehouse along the way to Canton and received exclusive rights to the pepper trade in exchange for their military assistance. ^[19] When Sulu despatch a force under the command of Datu Teting to attack Balambangan in 1775, its leaders sought safety in Labuan after the British quickly established a presence in Brunei. ^[19] When the two forces clashed, Datu Teting surrendered and his troops fled back to Sulu after learning that the warriors of Brunei, led by Pengiran Temenggong Ampa, were far too strong for them to defeat. ^{[20] [21]} Thomas Forrest visited Brunei in February 1776. ^[16] Despite Labuan's offer, the British left Brunei in 1777 due to the financial collapse of Balambangan, losing the entire East India Company. ^{[19] [22]}

In 1788, a Sulu army attacked Kampong Sembulan as an attempt to invade Brunei. They were defeated by Sharif Amir who later became the caretaker of Kampong Sembulan. ^[23]

In 1826, the Bruneian Civil War would start all over again into two forces: Omar Ali Saifuddin II and Muhammad Alam. With Omar setting his capital in Kampong Burong Pingai and Muhammad Alam setting his at Chermin Island. The civil war would end in 1828 when Muhammad Alam was assassinated by assassins sent by Raja Isteri Nooralam, the mother of Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddien II and the half-sister of Muhammad Alam. ^[24]

Weakening (1836–1906)

Illustration of the Treaty of Labuan (1844)

The power of the army was weakening due to many factors such as Moro pirates constantly raiding the Bornean coast and the Sea Dayak raids on the river made it difficult for Brunei to properly centralise the empire. ^[25]

The appointment of Mahkota as governor of Sarawak and the later Sarawak Uprising of 1836 ^[26] was one of the main leading factors to the empire's downfall as it lead to the Sultan making a great political error in appointing Brooke as Rajah of Sarawak in 1841. ^[27]

At first it wasn't a bad decision, he fought pirates ^[28] and stabilised Sarawak however Brooke declare independence from Brunei in 1843 starting the Anglo-Bruneian War which was a British tactical victory however the Sultan succeeded in the long run as he eliminated dangerous political figures such as Pengiran Muda Hashim, Badruddin and Datu Patinggi Ali whose death lead to fall of power for the Datu Patinggi wielders. ^[29]

The shrinking territories lead to Abdul Momin, realising his nation would become extinct if they kept ceding territories, declared the "Amanat" ^[30] which was an oath between the Sultan, Wazirs, Manteris, and holders of Tulin rights not to cede or lease any remaining territories to the foreign powers ^{[31] [32]} and which was signed on 20 February 1885. ^[33]

But even so, it was already too late. Brunei's military effectiveness was weaken due to Omar Ali Saifuddin II incompetency. And one of the signatories named Pengiran Temenggong Pengiran Anak Hashim ceded Terusan shortly after, raising doubts about the Amanat's efficacy. Although their intentions were commendable, their shortcoming was that there was no consequence for defying them. This flaw would emphasised Amanat's failure to stop Brunei from shrinking.

By the time of Hashim Jalilul Alam Aqamaddin. Brunei was a shadow of his former self. And in 1888, Brunei would sign the Protectorate Agreement of 1888, officially ending Bruneian independence in de jure 1888; de facto 1906. In 1984, Brunei gained his official independence from the United Kingdom.

Organisation

The army had around ~1,000–5,000 warriors ^{[7] [34] [35]} in the 16th century. In the 17th century to 18th century they had around ~1,000–4,000 warriors. ^{[36] [37] [23]} In the early 19th century, they had around ~500–1,500 warriors but slowly decreased to only around ~300–1,200 active troops by the mid and late 19th century. ^[38] They fought in both conventional warfare and unconventional warfare.

Land forces

17th-century bandolier

Pendekar

18th century depiction of a Bruneian warrior

The Pendekar (English: Warrior; Jawi: ڤنديكر‎) were usually the ones who fought outside of the Sultanate essentially being the Janissaries of Brunei, due to them being easier to mobilise for wars. They were commanded by local chiefs who later on, became semi-autonomous. ^[39]

Since the Sultanate of Brunei did not have a centralised government, they did not have a uniform system as it was very uncommon in Maritime Southeast Asia. However it was common to find them to wear Baju Melayu specifically a baju sikap, a destar, sinjang or sarung usually shaped like a Belted tartan or Ikatan Lingkup respectively and seluar or seluar mengan which usually covered the knee. the elites used sinjang combined with their pending. Often wearing a white baju inside of their baju sikap they also wore armor such as baju rantai or baju lamina and were armed with talwar or barong. ^[23] Many warriors also used kain cindai as they were and are used in Silat, warriors who wielded muskets most likely wore bandoliers which they obtain through the Dutch around the same time as they began to acquire European firearms. ^{[37] [40] [14]} Due to the fact that modern Bruneian ceremonial Istana Nurul Iman guards will use a red pouch bag with a strap alongside their blunderbuss ^[41] and they also likely used powder horns and powder flasks from the Ottoman Empire and Hindustan; the Mughal Empire and other later Muslim Indian states. ^{[42] [43] [23]}

Bandar Seri Begawan otherwise also known as Brunei Town in 1844.Bottom left: A warrior wearing either a sarong or sinjang in the style of a belted plaid or belted tartan.

Weaponry

Photograph of Malay firearms: (1) Long ornamented flintlock gun (senapang/senapan) (1a) Bamboo and rattan barrel cover. (2) Another flintlock gun (senapang/senapan). (3) Brass blunderbuss (pemuras).

They were armed with traditional weapons like bows and arrows, ^[44] Keris, spears and others. They also used Rattan round shields. ^{[45] [46]} which were still used up even during the Anglo-Bruneian War.

The first ever "firearm" in Brunei were hand cannons probably Huochong hand cannons were used during the reign of Sultan Bolkiah. ^[4] Brunei began to acquire European and Sumatran matchlock and later flintlock muskets in the late 17th century and early 18th century ^{[37] [40] [14]} from most likely from European merchants and regional powers in Asia. The earliest ones being Istinggars bought from Jambi Sultanate which was imported to Brunei during the Bruneian Civil War. ^[14]

Most likely the Brown Bess from the British and Portuguese ^{[19] [40]} , the M1752 Musket from the Spanish, Sulu Sultanate and the Sultanate of Maguindanao either through trade via slaves or looting during the Twenty Years' War. ^{[47] [48]} and pemuras from the Dutch East India Company and later Dutch East Indies. But most warriors likely preferred terakul likely because it was easier to obtain i.e cheaper and was generally more useful in the type of warfare Brunei used at the time and was the most common type of firearm during the Anglo-Bruneian War.^{[ citation needed ] [49]}

Levies

A photograph of Bruneian Malay clothing in 1915, the Kerahan wore something similar but more traditional.

The Kerahan (English: conscription; Jawi: كرهان‎) or Mujahidin were often recruited from Bruneian Malay, Kedayan and other jati melayu villages in empire likely from kuripan and kerajaan territories. ^[50] They usually wore white baju, seluar and destar and maybe a red, orange and brown baju sikap. ^[45] They were probably armed with bows and arrows, Keris, spears, terakul and other traditional Malay weapons. ^{[45] [44] [49] [ citation needed ]} They were probably also religious motivated especially against perceived enemies of Allah such as Sultan Alimuddin and Francisco de Sande.

The history of levies starts from Majapahit era, the "peasant army" was usually bare-chested wearing a sarung, armed with spear, short sword, or bow and arrows. ^{[51] : 111–113} Which inspired Brunei to also have a "levy system". Any historical information after the Brunei's breakaway from the Majapahit goes silent until the Castilian War, when the Ottomans taught new fighting tactics such as strategies and et cetera against the invading Spanish Empire. ^[52] They were mobilised for some battles in the Twenty Years' War against Moro pirates and Sulu Sultanate, likely because the sultan was an apostate. ^{[53] [54]}

The usage of levies by lords and chieftains were popularised in the start of Sarawak Uprising of 1836 by Pengiran Indera Mahkota, ^[55] who would used them against the rebels, defeating Ali in a unnamed battle. ^[56] They were also deployed in the Anglo-Bruneian War in battles such as the Battle of Batang Lupar and Undop and the Battle of Brunei Town.

Artillery

Treaty of Labuan in 1846 with cannons visible.

The usage of artillery is very well known, Sultan Bolkiah started to use artillery when he paid 40 Javanese blacksmiths to teach metal casting possibly introducing cannon technology to Brunei. ^[5] He also used artillery in wars famously presumably in his war against Tondo. He would also indirectly spread it to the Sulu Sultanate and the Sultanate of Maguindanao where they used it up until the Moro Rebellion.

Later on, the Castilian War began, Ottoman expeditionary forces began teaching Aceh, Brunei and other nearby Malay sultanates how to forge Ottoman cannons. ^[52] who began introducing Ottoman styled cannons, however despite this Brunei still used their traditional cannons though it's unknown if they used them in combat or not.

However, prior to this Brunei presumably had bigger cannons prior to the arrival of Ottoman expeditionary forces that had to be carried by horses and elephants, as Antonio Pigafetta said:

"the Malays had been in Brunei for a long time and had a high level of civilization. Forts were built that mounted heavy guns and were equipped with horses and trained elephants."

— Antonio Pigafetta ^[57]

Iban troops

The Iban troops (literally uncivilised troops, though the description is now considered somewhat derogatory) in contemporary Brunei were Dusun, Dayaks, Melanau, Orang Ulu and other native non-Malay peoples, ^{[58] [59] [60]} they would act independently similar to the Bashi-bazouks who would sometimes rebel against the Empire. ^{[61] [12] [10]}

They would also be used by Malay lords ruling over frontier territories such as Datu Patinggi Ali in his uprising ^[62] and also used by James Brooke against his campaigns against Moro pirates and rebels such as Rentap and Syarif Masahor. ^{[63] [64]}

An illustration of Iban forces lead by Rentap resisting attacks from James Brooke forces at the Battle of Kerangan Peris

Naval forces

Royal boat of Brunei, armed with swivel guns. Most likely depicting a Bruneian penjajap.

The Sultan of Brunei maintained naval forces, employing both sailors and privateers especially the Sama-Bajau ^{[65] [66] [67] [68]} and would often perform slave raiding often against Non-Muslims such as pagans and Christians. ^[69] Also according to a legend, before Muhammad Shah converted to Islam and became the Sultan of Brunei, he was a legendary pirate lord. Brunei continued to maintain a de-centralized navy by the 1840s. ^[70]

They would often use Penjajap, Kumpit ^[71] , Kakap ^[72] and Apilan and kota mara proas; which was only used in riverine warfare. Penjajap were the more preferred ship by Malays which were usually outfitted Lela or Lantaka on their ships as most Bornean ships was fast, able to almost encircle an armada of exactly 40 Spanish galleons in the Castilian War ^[73] and also to bombard enemy settlements. ^[74] While most early sailors and privateers were armed with traditional weapons. With Antonio Pigafetta, describing pre-gunpowder era Bruneian and Visayan fleets armed, alongside swords and shields:

“They have many lances, bows and arrows ^[44] , blowpipes, and small shields...” — Primo viaggio intorno al mondo, ed. Andrea da Mosto (1894), p. 137.

Malay Prahu warboat, 1863

However with the introduction of Western firearms around the late 17th century and early 18th century ^{[37] [40] [14]} , came the terakul which reasons shares with the warriors of Brunei who used them, being often used by Malay sailors and privateers. ^[49] However more "native" naval forces still used traditional weapons as they had no actual contact with the Europeans. Most privateers employed the same tactics as the Moro pirates.^{[ citation needed ]}

Most Bruneian ships flew either a pennon or swallowtail variant of the Bruneian flag; depending on the ship.

Pelaut and bajak

Haji Saman's Battery

Pelaut (English: Sailor) and Bajak (English: plow; usually refers to Bornean pirates) especially Malay ones are stereotypically shown as Orang Laut or Barbary corsairs, showing the Malay world and in general Muslim world as a monolithic culture, typical of Orientalism. ^[75] But Malay privateers likely used similar clothing to the Malay peasantry, who wore baju over their seluar ^[76] secured with a sash and wore tanjak ^[77] though some sailors wore a samping. Early seafarers used quivers to hold their bows and arrows but after the arrival of gunpowder, They also likely used powder horns and powder flasks from the Ottoman Empire and Hindustan; the Mughal Empire and other later Muslim Indian states. ^{[42] [43] [23]} Non-Malay seafarers wore their traditional clothing.

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