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The 18th century lasted from 1 January 1701 (represented by the Roman numerals MDCCI) to 31 December 1800 (MDCCC). During the 18th century, elements of Enlightenment thinking culminated in the Atlantic Revolutions. During the century, slave trading and human trafficking expanded across the shores of the Atlantic, while declining in Russia, [1] China, [2] and Korea. Revolutions began to challenge the legitimacy of monarchical and aristocratic power structures, including the structures and beliefs that supported slavery. The Industrial Revolution began during mid-century, leading to radical changes in human society and the environment. The European colonization of the Americas and other parts of the world intensified and associated mass migrations of people grew in size as part of the Age of Sail.
Western historians have occasionally defined the 18th century otherwise for the purposes of their work. For example, the "short" 18th century may be defined as 1715–1789, denoting the period of time between the death of Louis XIV of France and the start of the French Revolution, with an emphasis on directly interconnected events. [3] [4] To historians who expand the century to include larger historical movements, the "long" 18th century [5] may run from the Glorious Revolution of 1688 to the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 [6] or even later. [7]
In Europe, philosophers ushered in the Age of Enlightenment. This period coincided with the French Revolution of 1789, and was later compromised by the excesses of the Reign of Terror. At first, many monarchies of Europe embraced Enlightenment ideals, but in the wake of the French Revolution they feared loss of power and formed broad coalitions to oppose the French Republic in the French Revolutionary Wars. Various conflicts throughout the century, including the War of the Spanish Succession and the Seven Years' War, saw the Kingdom of Great Britain triumph over its European rivals to become the preeminent power in Europe. However, Britain's attempts to exert its authority over its colonies became a catalyst for the American Revolution.
The 18th century also marked the end of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as an independent state. Its semi-democratic government system was not robust enough to rival the neighboring states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia, which partitioned the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth between themselves, changing the landscape of Central Europe and politics for the next hundred years.
In The Americas, the United States declared its independence from Great Britain. In 1776, Thomas Jefferson wrote the Declaration of Independence. In 1789, George Washington was inaugurated as the first president. American Benjamin Franklin traveled to Europe where he was hailed as an inventor. Examples of his inventions include the lightning rod and bifocal glasses.
In Africa, the Ethiopian Empire underwent the Zemene Mesafint, a period when the country was ruled by a class of regional noblemen and the emperor was merely a figurehead. The Atlantic slave trade also saw the continued involvement of states such as the Oyo Empire.
The Ottoman Empire experienced an unprecedented period of peace and economic expansion, taking no part in European wars from 1740 to 1768. As a result, the empire was not exposed to Europe's military improvements during the Seven Years' War. The Ottoman military consequently lagged behind and suffered several defeats against Russia in the second half of the century. In West Asia, Nader Shah led Persia in successful military campaigns.
In South Asia, the death of Mughal emperor Aurangzeb marked the end of medieval India and the beginning of an increasing level of European influence and control in the region, this period also with an episode of rapid Maratha expansion. In 1739, Persian emperor Nader Shah invaded and plundered Delhi, the capital of the Mughal Empire. Later, his general Ahmad Shah Abdali scored another victory against the Marathas, the then dominant power in India, in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761. [8] By the middle of the century, the British East India Company began to conquer eastern India, [9] [8] and by the end of the century, the Anglo-Mysore Wars against Tipu Sultan and his father Hyder Ali, led to Company rule over the south. [10] [11]
In East Asia, the century marked the High Qing era and the continual seclusion policies of the Tokugawa shogunate. European colonization intensified in present-day Indonesia, where the Dutch East India Company established increasing levels of control over the Mataram Sultanate. Southeast Asia would experience the major upheavals of the Konbaung–Ayutthaya Wars and the Tây Sơn rebellion. In Oceania, the European colonization of Australia and New Zealand began during the late half of the century.
The 1700s decade ran from January 1, 1700, to December 31, 1709.
The 1710s decade ran from January 1, 1710, to December 31, 1719.
1716 (MDCCXVI) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1716th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 716th year of the 2nd millennium, the 16th year of the 18th century, and the 7th year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1716, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
1711 (MDCCXI) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, the 1711th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 711th year of the 2nd millennium, the 11th year of the 18th century, and the 2nd year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1711, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
1710 (MDCCX) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar, the 1710th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 710th year of the 2nd millennium, the 10th year of the 18th century, and the 1st year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1710, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
1714 (MDCCXIV) was a common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar, the 1714th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 714th year of the 2nd millennium, the 14th year of the 18th century, and the 5th year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1714, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
1713 (MDCCXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar, the 1713th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 713th year of the 2nd millennium, the 13th year of the 18th century, and the 4th year of the 1710s decade. As of the start of 1713, the Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.
The Atlantic Revolutions were numerous revolutions in the Atlantic World in the late 18th and early 19th century. Following the Age of Enlightenment, ideas critical of absolutist monarchies began to spread. A revolutionary wave soon occurred, with the aim of ending monarchical rule, emphasizing the ideals of the Enlightenment, and spreading liberalism.
The Russo-Turkish War of 1787–1792 involved an unsuccessful attempt by the Ottoman Empire to regain lands lost to the Russian Empire in the course of the previous Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). It took place concomitantly with the Austro-Turkish War (1788–1791), Russo-Swedish War (1788–1790) and Theatre War.
The Age of Revolution is a period from the late-18th to the mid-19th centuries during which a number of significant revolutionary movements occurred in most of Europe and the Americas. The period is noted for the change from absolutist monarchies to representative governments with a written constitution, and the creation of nation states.
The Second Hundred Years' War is a periodization or historical era term used by some historians to describe the series of military conflicts around the globe between Great Britain and France that occurred from about 1689 to 1815, including several separate wars such as the War of the Spanish Succession, War of the Austrian Succession, Seven Years' War, American Revolutionary War and the Napoleonic Wars. The Second Hundred Years' War is named after the Hundred Years' War, which occurred in the 14th and 15th century. The term appears to have been coined by J. R. Seeley in his influential work The Expansion of England (1883).
The military history of the United Kingdom covers the period from the creation of the united Kingdom of Great Britain, with the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, to the present day.
France was one of the leading participants in the Seven Years' War which lasted between 1754 and 1763. France entered the war with the hope of achieving a lasting victory against Prussia, Britain, and their German allies and with the hope of expanding its colonial possessions.
The French Royal Army was the principal land force of the Kingdom of France. It served the Bourbon dynasty from the reign of Louis XIV in the mid-17th century to that of Charles X in the 19th, with an interlude from 1792 to 1814 and another during the Hundred Days in 1815. It was permanently dissolved following the July Revolution in 1830. The French Royal Army became a model for the new regimental system that was to be imitated throughout Europe from the mid-17th century onward. It was regarded as Europe's greatest military force for much of its existence.
This is a timeline of the 18th century.