Nanomotor

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A nanomotor is a molecular or nanoscale device capable of converting energy into movement. It can typically generate forces on the order of piconewtons. [1] [2] [3] [4]

Contents

Magnetically controlled Helical Nanomotor moving inside a HeLa cell drawing a pattern 'N'. Nanomotor inside cell.gif
Magnetically controlled Helical Nanomotor moving inside a HeLa cell drawing a pattern 'N'.

While nanoparticles have been utilized by artists for centuries, such as in the famous Lycurgus cup, scientific research into nanotechnology did not come about until recently. In 1959, Richard Feynman gave a famous talk entitled "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" at the American Physical Society's conference hosted at Caltech. He went on to wage a scientific bet that no one person could design a motor smaller than 400 μm on any side. [6] The purpose of the bet (as with most scientific bets) was to inspire scientists to develop new technologies, and anyone who could develop a nanomotor could claim the $1,000 USD prize. [6] However, his purpose was thwarted by William McLellan, who fabricated a nanomotor without developing new methods. Nonetheless, Richard Feynman's speech inspired a new generation of scientists to pursue research into nanotechnology.

Kinesin uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales to walk along a microtubule. Kinesin walking.gif
Kinesin uses protein domain dynamics on nanoscales to walk along a microtubule.

Nanomotors are the focus of research for their ability to overcome microfluidic dynamics present at low Reynold's numbers. Scallop Theory explains that nanomotors must break symmetry to produce motion at low Reynold's numbers. In addition, Brownian motion must be considered because particle-solvent interaction can dramatically impact the ability of a nanomotor to traverse through a liquid. This can pose a significant problem when designing new nanomotors. Current nanomotor research seeks to overcome these problems, and by doing so, can improve current microfluidic devices or give rise to new technologies.[ citation needed ]

Significant research has been done to overcome microfluidic dynamics at low Reynolds numbers. Now, the more pressing challenge is to overcome issues such as biocompatibility, control on directionality and availability of fuel before nanomotors can be used for theranostic applications within the body. [7]

Nanotube and nanowire motors

In 2004, Ayusman Sen and Thomas E. Mallouk fabricated the first synthetic and autonomous nanomotor. [8] The two-micron long nanomotors were composed of two segments, platinum and gold, that could catalytically react with diluted hydrogen peroxide in water to produce motion. [8] The Au-Pt nanomotors have autonomous, non-Brownian motion that stems from the propulsion via catalytic generation of chemical gradients. [8] [9] As implied, their motion does not require the presence of an external magnetic, electric or optical field to guide their motion. [10] By creating their own local fields, these motors are said to move through self-electrophoresis. Joseph Wang in 2008 was able to dramatically enhance the motion of Au-Pt catalytic nanomotors by incorporating carbon nanotubes into the platinum segment. [11]

Since 2004, different types of nanotube and nanowire based motors have been developed, in addition to nano- and micromotors of different shapes. [12] [13] [14] [15] Most of these motors use hydrogen peroxide as fuel, but some notable exceptions exist. [16] [17]

Metallic microrods (4.3 mm long x 300 nm diameter) can be propelled autonomously in fluids or inside living cells, without chemical fuel, by resonant ultrasound. These rods contain a central Ni stripe that can be steered by an external magnetic field, resulting in "synchronized swimming." Many Wire Coordinated Motion.gif
Metallic microrods (4.3 μm long x 300 nm diameter) can be propelled autonomously in fluids or inside living cells, without chemical fuel, by resonant ultrasound. These rods contain a central Ni stripe that can be steered by an external magnetic field, resulting in "synchronized swimming."

These silver halide and silver-platinum nanomotors are powered by halide fuels, which can be regenerated by exposure to ambient light. [17] Some nanomotors can even be propelled by multiple stimuli, with varying responses. [19] These multi-functional nanowires move in different directions depending on the stimulus (e.g. chemical fuel or ultrasonic power) applied. [19] For example, bimetallic nanomotors have been shown to undergo rheotaxis to move with or against fluid flow by a combination of chemical and acoustic stimuli. [20] In Dresden Germany, rolled-up microtube nanomotors produced motion by harnessing the bubbles in catalytic reactions. [21] Without the reliance on electrostatic interactions, bubble-induced propulsion enables motor movement in relevant biological fluids, but typically still requires toxic fuels such as hydrogen peroxide. [21] This has limited nanomotors' in vitro applications. One in vivo application, however, of microtube motors has been described for the first time by Joseph Wang and Liangfang Zhang using gastric acid as fuel. [22] Recently titanium dioxide has also been identified as a potential candidate for nanomotors due to their corrosion resistance properties and biocompatibility. [23] Future research into catalytical nanomotors holds major promise for important cargo-towing applications, ranging from cell sorting microchip devices to directed drug delivery.

A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes protein dynamics on nanoscales Protein translation.gif
A ribosome is a biological machine that utilizes protein dynamics on nanoscales

Enzymatic nanomotors

Recently, there has been more research into developing enzymatic nanomotors and micropumps. At low Reynold's numbers, single molecule enzymes could act as autonomous nanomotors. [24] [25] Ayusman Sen and Samudra Sengupta demonstrated how self-powered micropumps can enhance particle transportation. [26] [27] This proof-of-concept system demonstrates that enzymes can be successfully utilized as an "engine" in nanomotors and micropumps. [28] It has since been shown that particles themselves will diffuse faster when coated with active enzyme molecules in a solution of their substrate., [29] [30] and further particles coated with active enzymes subject to a surface of their substrate have demonstrated directional motor-like motion. [31] Microfluidic experiments have shown that enzyme molecules will undergo directional swimming up their substrate gradient. [25] [32] It has also been shown that catalysis is sufficient in rendering directed motion in enzymes. [33] This remains the only method of separating enzymes based on activity alone. Additionally, enzymes in cascade have also shown aggregation based on substrate driven chemotaxis. [34] Developing enzyme-driven nanomotors promises to inspire new biocompatible technologies and medical applications. [35] However, several limitations, such as biocompatibility and cellpenetration, have to be overcome for realizing these applications. [36] One of the new biocompatible technologies would be to utilize enzymes for the directional delivery of cargo. [37] [38]

A proposed branch of research is the integration of molecular motor proteins found in living cells into molecular motors implanted in artificial devices. Such a motor protein would be able to move a "cargo" within that device, via protein dynamics, similarly to how kinesin moves various molecules along tracks of microtubules inside cells. Starting and stopping the movement of such motor proteins would involve caging the ATP in molecular structures sensitive to UV light. Pulses of UV illumination would thus provide pulses of movement. DNA nanomachines, based on changes between two molecular conformations of DNA in response to various external triggers, have also been described.

Helical nanomotors

Another interesting direction of research has led to the creation of helical silica particles coated with magnetic materials that can be maneuvered using a rotating magnetic field. [39]

Scanning Electron Microscope image of a Helical nanomotor Helical nanomotor.jpg
Scanning Electron Microscope image of a Helical nanomotor

Such nanomotors are not dependent on chemical reactions to fuel the propulsion. A triaxial Helmholtz coil can provide directed rotating field in space. Recent works have shown how such nanomotors can be used to measure viscosity of non-newtonian fluids at a resolution of a few microns. [40] This technology promises creation of viscosity map inside cells and the extracellular milieu. Such nanomotors have been demonstrated to move in blood. [41] Recently, researchers have managed to controllably move such nanomotors inside cancer cells allowing them to trace out patterns inside a cell. [5] Nanomotors moving through the tumor microenvironment have demonstrated the presence of sialic acid in the cancer-secreted extracellular matrix. [42]

Current-driven nanomotors (Classical)

In 2003 Fennimore et al. presented the experimental realization of a prototypical current-driven nanomotor. [43] It was based on tiny gold leaves mounted on multiwalled carbon nanotubes, with the carbon layers themselves carrying out the motion. The nanomotor is driven by the electrostatic interaction of the gold leaves with three gate electrodes where alternate currents are applied. Some years later, several other groups showed the experimental realizations of different nanomotors driven by direct currents. [44] [45] The designs typically consisted of organic molecules adsorbed on a metallic surface with a scanning-tunneling-microscope (STM) on top of it. The current flowing from the tip of the STM is used to drive the directional rotation of the molecule [45] or of a part of it. [44] The operation of such nanomotors relies on classical physics and is related to the concept of Brownian motors. [46] These examples of nanomotors are also known as molecular motors.

Quantum effects in current-driven nanomotors

Due to their small size, quantum mechanics plays an important role in some nanomotors. For example, in 2020 Stolz et al. showed the cross-over from classical motion to quantum tunneling in a nanomotor made of a rotating molecule driven by the STM's current. [47] Cold-atom-based ac-driven quantum motors have been explored by several authors. [48] [49]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon nanotube</span> Allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure

A carbon nanotube (CNT) is a tube made of carbon with a diameter in the nanometre range (nanoscale). They are one of the allotropes of carbon. Two broad classes of carbon nanotubes are recognized:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbotics</span> Branch of robotics

Microbotics is the field of miniature robotics, in particular mobile robots with characteristic dimensions less than 1 mm. The term can also be used for robots capable of handling micrometer size components.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanorobotics</span> Emerging technology field

Nanoid robotics, or for short, nanorobotics or nanobotics, is an emerging technology field creating machines or robots, which are called nanorobots or simply nanobots, whose components are at or near the scale of a nanometer. More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots with devices ranging in size from 0.1 to 10 micrometres and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. The terms nanobot, nanoid, nanite, nanomachine and nanomite have also been used to describe such devices currently under research and development.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular machine</span> Molecular-scale artificial or biological device

Molecular machines are a class of molecules typically described as an assembly of a discrete number of molecular components intended to produce mechanical movements in response to specific stimuli, mimicking macromolecular devices such as switches and motors. Naturally occurring or biological molecular machines are responsible for vital living processes such as DNA replication and ATP synthesis. Kinesins and ribosomes are examples of molecular machines, and they often take the form of multi-protein complexes. For the last several decades, scientists have attempted, with varying degrees of success, to miniaturize machines found in the macroscopic world. The first example of an artificial molecular machine (AMM) was reported in 1994, featuring a rotaxane with a ring and two different possible binding sites. In 2016 the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Jean-Pierre Sauvage, Sir J. Fraser Stoddart, and Bernard L. Feringa for the design and synthesis of molecular machines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">James Tour</span> American scientist

James Mitchell Tour is an American chemist and nanotechnologist. He is a Professor of Chemistry, Professor of Materials Science and Nanoengineering at Rice University in Houston, Texas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular motor</span> Biological molecular machines

Molecular motors are natural (biological) or artificial molecular machines that are the essential agents of movement in living organisms. In general terms, a motor is a device that consumes energy in one form and converts it into motion or mechanical work; for example, many protein-based molecular motors harness the chemical free energy released by the hydrolysis of ATP in order to perform mechanical work. In terms of energetic efficiency, this type of motor can be superior to currently available man-made motors. One important difference between molecular motors and macroscopic motors is that molecular motors operate in the thermal bath, an environment in which the fluctuations due to thermal noise are significant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Synthetic molecular motor</span> Man-made molecular machines

Synthetic molecular motors are molecular machines capable of continuous directional rotation under an energy input. Although the term "molecular motor" has traditionally referred to a naturally occurring protein that induces motion, some groups also use the term when referring to non-biological, non-peptide synthetic motors. Many chemists are pursuing the synthesis of such molecular motors.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Artificial enzyme</span>

See also artificial metalloenzyme.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular propeller</span>

A Molecular propeller is a molecule that can propel fluids when rotated, due to its special shape that is designed in analogy to macroscopic propellers: it has several molecular-scale blades attached at a certain pitch angle around the circumference of a shaft, aligned along the rotational axis.

An electroosmotic pump is used for generating flow or pressure by use of an electric field. One application of this is removing liquid flooding water from channels and gas diffusion layers and direct hydration of the proton exchange membrane in the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of the proton exchange membrane fuel cells. Additionally, electroosmotic pumps have gained significant attention due to their potential applications in microfluidic channels, lab-on-a-chip devices, and biomedical engineering.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Micropump</span>

Micropumps are devices that can control and manipulate small fluid volumes. Although any kind of small pump is often referred to as a micropump, a more accurate definition restricts this term to pumps with functional dimensions in the micrometer range. Such pumps are of special interest in microfluidic research, and have become available for industrial product integration in recent years. Their miniaturized overall size, potential cost and improved dosing accuracy compared to existing miniature pumps fuel the growing interest for this innovative kind of pump.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Self-propelled particles</span> Type of autonomous agent

Self-propelled particles (SPP), also referred to as self-driven particles, are terms used by physicists to describe autonomous agents, which convert energy from the environment into directed or persistent random walk. Natural systems which have inspired the study and design of these particles include walking, swimming or flying animals. Other biological systems include bacteria, cells, algae and other micro-organisms. Generally, self-propelled particles often refer to artificial systems such as robots or specifically designed particles such as swimming Janus colloids, bimetallic nanorods, nanomotors and walking grains. In the case of directed propulsion, which is driven by a chemical gradient, this is referred to as chemotaxis, observed in biological systems, e.g. bacteria quorum sensing and ant pheromone detection, and in synthetic systems, e.g. enzyme molecule chemotaxis and enzyme powered hard and soft particles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nanoscale plasmonic motor</span>

A nanoscale plasmonic motor is a type of nanomotor, converting light energy to rotational motion at nanoscale. It is constructed from pieces of gold sheet in a gammadion shape, embedded within layers of silica. When irradiated with light from a laser, the gold pieces rotate. The functioning is explained by the quantum concept of the plasmon. This type of nanomotor is much smaller than other types, and its operation can be controlled by varying the frequency of the incident light.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Carbon nanothread</span> Carbon crystalline nanomaterial

A carbon nanothread is a sp3-bonded, one-dimensional carbon crystalline nanomaterial. The tetrahedral sp3-bonding of its carbon is similar to that of diamond. Nanothreads are only a few atoms across, more than 300,000 times thinner than a human hair. They consist of a stiff, strong carbon core surrounded by hydrogen atoms. Carbon nanotubes, although also one-dimensional nanomaterials, in contrast have sp2-carbon bonding as is found in graphite. The smallest carbon nanothread has a diameter of only 0.2 nanometers, much smaller than the diameter of a single-wall carbon nanotube.

Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (TERS) is a variant of surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) that combines scanning probe microscopy with Raman spectroscopy. High spatial resolution chemical imaging is possible via TERS, with routine demonstrations of nanometer spatial resolution under ambient laboratory conditions, or better at ultralow temperatures and high pressure.

Micromotors are very small particles that can move themselves. The term is often used interchangeably with "nanomotor," despite the implicit size difference. These micromotors actually propel themselves in a specific direction autonomously when placed in a chemical solution. There are many different micromotor types operating under a host of mechanisms. Easily the most important examples are biological motors such as bacteria and any other self-propelled cells. Synthetically, researchers have exploited oxidation-reduction reactions to produce chemical gradients, local fluid flows, or streams of bubbles that then propel these micromotors through chemical media. Different stimuli, both external and internal can be used to control the behavior of these micromotors.

Many experimental realizations of self-propelled particles exhibit a strong tendency to aggregate and form clusters, whose dynamics are much richer than those of passive colloids. These aggregates of particles form for a variety of reasons, from chemical gradients to magnetic and ultrasonic fields. Self-propelled enzyme motors and synthetic nanomotors also exhibit clustering effects in the form of chemotaxis. Chemotaxis is a form of collective motion of biological or non-biological particles toward a fuel source or away from a threat, as observed experimentally in enzyme diffusion and also synthetic chemotaxis or phototaxis. In addition to irreversible schooling, self-propelled particles also display reversible collective motion, such as predator–prey behavior and oscillatory clustering and dispersion.

Collective motion is defined as the spontaneous emergence of ordered movement in a system consisting of many self-propelled agents. It can be observed in everyday life, for example in flocks of birds, schools of fish, herds of animals and also in crowds and car traffic. It also appears at the microscopic level: in colonies of bacteria, motility assays and artificial self-propelled particles. The scientific community is trying to understand the universality of this phenomenon. In particular it is intensively investigated in statistical physics and in the field of active matter. Experiments on animals, biological and synthesized self-propelled particles, simulations and theories are conducted in parallel to study these phenomena. One of the most famous models that describes such behavior is the Vicsek model introduced by Tamás Vicsek et al. in 1995.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biohybrid microswimmer</span>

A biohybrid microswimmer also known as biohybrid nanorobot, can be defined as a microswimmer that consist of both biological and artificial constituents, for instance, one or several living microorganisms attached to one or various synthetic parts.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microswimmer</span> Microscopic object able to traverse fluid

A microswimmer is a microscopic object with the ability to move in a fluid environment. Natural microswimmers are found everywhere in the natural world as biological microorganisms, such as bacteria, archaea, protists, sperm and microanimals. Since the turn of the millennium there has been increasing interest in manufacturing synthetic and biohybrid microswimmers. Although only two decades have passed since their emergence, they have already shown promise for various biomedical and environmental applications.

References

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  2. ↑ Bamrungsap, S.; Phillips, J. A.; Xiong, X.; Kim, Y.; Wang, H.; Liu, H.; Hebard, A.; Tan, W. (2011). "Magnetically driven single DNA nanomotor". Small. 7 (5): 601–605. doi:10.1002/smll.201001559. PMID   21370463.
  3. ↑ T. E. Mallouk and A. Sen, "Powering nanorobots," Scientific American, May 2009, pp. 72-77
  4. ↑ J. Wang, "Nanomachines: Fundamental and Application", Wiley, 2013
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  14. ↑ Baker, Matthew S.; Yadav, Vinita; Sen, Ayusman; Phillips, Scott T. (2013). "A Self-Powered Polymeric Material that Responds Autonomously and Continuously to Fleeting Stimuli". Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 52 (39): 10295–10299. doi:10.1002/anie.201304333. ISSN   1433-7851. PMID   23939613.
  15. ↑ Zhang, Hua; Duan, Wentao; Liu, Lei; Sen, Ayusman (2013). "Depolymerization-Powered Autonomous Motors Using Biocompatible Fuel". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 135 (42): 15734–15737. doi:10.1021/ja4089549. ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   24094034.
  16. ↑ Liu, Ran; Wong, Flory; Duan, Wentao; Sen, Ayusman (2014-12-14). "Synthesis and characterization of silver halide nanowires". Polyhedron. Special Issue in Honor of Professor John E. Bercaw. 84: 192–196. doi: 10.1016/j.poly.2014.08.027 .
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  25. 1 2 Sengupta, Samudra; Dey, Krishna K.; Muddana, Hari S.; Tabouillot, Tristan; Ibele, Michael E.; Butler, Peter J.; Sen, Ayusman (2013-01-30). "Enzyme Molecules as Nanomotors". Journal of the American Chemical Society. 135 (4): 1406–1414. doi:10.1021/ja3091615. ISSN   0002-7863. PMID   23308365.
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  28. ↑ Sengupta, Samudra; Spiering, Michelle M.; Dey, Krishna K.; Duan, Wentao; Patra, Debabrata; Butler, Peter J.; Astumian, R. Dean; Benkovic, Stephen J.; Sen, Ayusman (2014-03-25). "DNA Polymerase as a Molecular Motor and Pump". ACS Nano. 8 (3): 2410–2418. doi:10.1021/nn405963x. ISSN   1936-0851. PMID   24601532.
  29. ↑ Dey, Krishna K.; Zhao, Xi; Tansi, Benjamin M.; Méndez-Ortiz, Wilfredo J.; Córdova-Figueroa, Ubaldo M.; Golestanian, Ramin; Sen, Ayusman (2015-12-09). "Micromotors Powered by Enzyme Catalysis". Nano Letters. 15 (12): 8311–8315. Bibcode:2015NanoL..15.8311D. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03935. ISSN   1530-6984. PMID   26587897.
  30. ↑ Ma, Xing; Jannasch, Anita; Albrecht, Urban-Raphael; Hahn, Kersten; Miguel-López, Albert; Schäffer, Erik; Sánchez, Samuel (2015-10-14). "Enzyme-Powered Hollow Mesoporous Janus Nanomotors". Nano Letters. 15 (10): 7043–7050. Bibcode:2015NanoL..15.7043M. doi: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.5b03100 . hdl: 2445/123491 . ISSN   1530-6984. PMID   26437378.
  31. ↑ Korosec, Chapin S.; Unksov, Ivan N.; Surendiran, Pradheebha; Lyttleton, Roman; Curmi, Paul M. G.; Angstmann, Christopher N.; Eichhorn, Ralf; Linke, Heiner; Forde, Nancy R. (2024-02-23). "Motility of an autonomous protein-based artificial motor that operates via a burnt-bridge principle". Nature Communications. 15 (1511). doi:10.1038/s41467-024-45570-y. PMC   10891099 . PMID   38396042.
  32. ↑ Dey, Krishna Kanti; Das, Sambeeta; Poyton, Matthew F.; Sengupta, Samudra; Butler, Peter J.; Cremer, Paul S.; Sen, Ayusman (2014-12-23). "Chemotactic Separation of Enzymes". ACS Nano. 8 (12): 11941–11949. doi: 10.1021/nn504418u . ISSN   1936-0851. PMID   25243599.
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