Plastisphere

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A colony of limpets attached to a diving mask, found washed ashore on a beach Beach Find - Flickr - Andrea Westmoreland.jpg
A colony of limpets attached to a diving mask, found washed ashore on a beach

The plastisphere is a human-made ecosystem consisting of organisms able to live on plastic waste. Plastic marine debris, most notably microplastics, accumulates in aquatic environments and serves as a habitat for various types of microorganisms, including bacteria and fungi. [1] [2] As of 2022, an estimated 51 trillion microplastics are floating in the surface water of the world's oceans. [3] A single 5mm piece of plastic can host 1,000s of different microbial species. [4] Some marine bacteria can break down plastic polymers and use the carbon as a source of energy.

Contents

Microbes interacting with the surface of plastics. Surface microbial interactions with microplastics compared to zooplankton and phytoplankton.jpg
Microbes interacting with the surface of plastics.

Plastic pollution acts as a more durable "ship" than biodegradable material for carrying the organisms over long distances. [5] [6] This long-distance transportation can move microbes to different ecosystems and potentially introduce invasive species [1] as well as harmful algae. [7] The microorganisms found on the plastic debris comprise an entire ecosystem of autotrophs, heterotrophs and symbionts. [8] The microbial species found within plastisphere differ from other floating materials that naturally occur (i.e., feathers and algae) due to plastic's unique chemical nature and slow speed of biodegradation. In addition to microbes, insects have come to flourish in areas of the ocean that were previously uninhabitable. The sea skater, for example, has been able to reproduce on the hard surface provided by the floating plastic. [9]

History

Global distribution of microplastics according to size in millimeters. Microplastique pone.0111913.g002.png
Global distribution of microplastics according to size in millimeters.

Discovery

The plastisphere was first described in 2013 by a team of three marine scientists, Linda Amaral-Zettler from the Marine Biological Laboratory, Tracy Mincer from Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, and Erik Zettler from Sea Education Association. [10] [11] They collected plastic samples during research trips to study how the microorganisms function and alter the ecosystem. They analyzed plastic fragments collected in nets from multiple locations within the Atlantic Ocean. [11] The researchers used a combination of scanning electron microscopy and DNA sequencing to identify the distinct microbial community composition of the plastisphere. [11] Among the most notable findings were "pit formers", crack and pit forming organisms that provide evidence of biodegradation [11] [12] and may also have the potential to break down hydrocarbons. [11] In their analysis, the researchers also found members of the genus Vibrio , a genus which includes the bacteria that cause cholera and other gastrointestinal ailments. [13] Some species of Vibrio can glow, and it is hypothesized that this attracts fish that eat the organisms colonizing the plastic, which then feed from the stomachs of the fish. [14] Studies carried out in the Baltic Sea [15] and in the Mediterranean Sea, [16] also found microorganisms of the genus Vibrio, in plastic films and fragments, and in plastic fibres, respectively.

UN assessment of marine plastics litter From Pollution to Solution, a global assessment of marine litter and plastic pollution, English.pdf
UN assessment of marine plastics litter

Anthropogenic sources

Plastic was invented in 1907 by Leo Baekeland using formaldehyde and phenol. [17] Since then, plastic use has exploded and is prevalent throughout human society. From 1964 to 2014, the use of plastic increased twenty-fold. It is expected to double from the 2014 levels by 2035. [18] Efforts to curb plastic production through plastic bans have largely focused on packaging and single-use plastics, but have not slowed the pace of plastic pollution. Similarly, plastic recycling rates tend to be low. In the EU, only 29% of the plastic consumed is recycled. [19] Plastic that does not reach a recycling facility or landfill, accumulates in marine environments due to accidental dumping of the waste, losses during transport, or direct disposal from ships. [19] In 2010, it was estimated that 4 to 12 million metric tons (Mt) of plastic waste entered into marine ecosystems. [20]

Smaller, more inconspicuous microplastic particles have aggregated in the oceans since the 1960s. [21] A more recent concern in microplastic pollution is the use of plastic films in agriculture. 7.4 million tons of plastic film are used each year to increase food production. [22] Scientists have found that microbial biofilms can form within 7–14 days on plastic film surfaces, and have the ability to alter the chemical properties of the soil and plants that we are ingesting. [23] Microplastics have been recorded everywhere, even the Arctic due to atmospheric circulation. [24]

Research

Diversity

Large-scale sequencing studies have found alpha diversities to be lower in the plastisphere relative to surrounding soil samples due to a decrease in species richness in the plastisphere. [25] [26] [27] [28] Polymer film fragments affect microbes in different ways, leading to mixed effects on microbial growth rates in the plastisphere. [25] [28] [29] Certain polymer degrading bacteria release toxic byproducts as a result of the degradation, serving as a deterrent to the colonization of the plastisphere by other species. [25] Phylogenetic diversity is also decreased in the plastisphere relative to nearby soil samples. [25]

The bacterial and microbial communities in the plastisphere are significantly different from those found in surrounding soil samples, creating a new ecological niche within the ecosystem. [25] [30] [31] The specific growth of bacteria caused by film fragments is a primary cause for the creation of a unique bacterial community. [25] [32] Changes in bacterial community composition over time in the plastisphere have also been shown to drive changes in surrounding land. [25] [28] [33]

In another study which looked at the factors influencing the diversity of the plastisphere, the researchers found that the highest degree of unique microorganisms tended to favor plastic pieces that were blue. [34]

A 2024 paper described an experiment carried out across the Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea aimed at studying the colonisation and genetic variety of organisms in the marine plastisphere. The paper identified tardigrades incubating in plastics in situ . [35]

Taxonomy

The ability of certain bacteria to degrade polymers facilitates their flourishing within the plastisphere. Phyla of bacteria that have increased presences in the plastisphere relative to soil samples without plastic micro-fragments include Acidobacteria, Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Chloroflexi, Firmicutes, Planctomycetes, and Proteobacteria. [25] [36] [37] [38] [39] Furthermore, bacteria of the order Rhizobiales, Rhodobacterales, and Sphingomonadales are enriched in the plastisphere. [25] Interactions within the unique bacterial community composition in the plastisphere influence local biogeochemical cycles and ecosystems' food web interactions.

Community metabolism

Bacterial communities in the plastisphere have enhanced metabolisms. [25] KEGG Pathway enrichment analyses of plastisphere samples have demonstrated increases in genetic and environmental information processing, cellular processes, and organismal systems. [25] Enhanced metabolic functions for communities in the plastisphere include nitrogen metabolism, insulin signaling pathways, bacterial secretion, organophosphorus compound metabolism, antioxidant metabolism, Vitamin B synthesis, chemotaxis, terpenoid quinone synthesis, sulfur metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism, herbicide degradation, fatty acid metabolism, amino acid metabolism, ketone body pathways, lipopolysaccharide synthesis, alcohol degradation, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon degradation, lipid metabolism, cofactor metabolism, cellular growth, cell motility, membrane transport, energy metabolism, and xenobiotics metabolism. [25] [39] [40] [41]

Relationship to biogeochemical cycles

The presence of hydrocarbon-degrading species such as hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria in the plastisphere indicates a direct link between the plastisphere and the carbon cycle. [25] [42] [43]

Metagenome analyses suggest that genes involved in carbon degradation, nitrogen fixation, organic nitrogen conversion, ammonia oxidation, denitrification, inorganic phosphorus solubilization, organic phosphorus mineralization, and phosphorus transporter production are enriched in the plastisphere, demonstrating the potential impact on biogeochemical cycles by the plastisphere. [25] [44] [45] [46] [47] [48] [49] [50] Specific bacterial phyla present in the plastisphere due to their biodegradation abilities and their role in the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles include Proteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. [25] [42] [43] [51] [52] Some carbon-degrading bacteria are able to use plastics as a food source. [53] [54]

Research in the southern Pacific Ocean has investigated the plastisphere's potential in CO2 and N2O contribution where fairly low greenhouse gas contributions by the plastisphere were noted. However, it was concluded that greenhouse gas contribution was dependent on the degree of nutrient concentration and the type of plastic. [55]

Significance to human health

KEGG Pathway enrichment analyses of plastisphere samples suggest that sequences related to human disease are enriched in the plastisphere. [25] Cholera causing Vibrio cholerae, cancer pathways, and toxoplasmosis sequences are enriched in the plastisphere. [13] [25] Pathogenic bacteria are sustained in the plastisphere in part due to the adsorption of organic pollutants onto biofilms and their usage as nutrition. [25] [39] [40] Current research also aims to identify the relationship between the plastisphere and respiratory viruses and whether the plastisphere affects viral persistence and survival in the environment. [56]

Degradation by microorganisms

Some microorganisms present in the plastisphere have the potential to degrade plastic materials. [19] This could be potentially advantageous, as scientists may be able to utilize the microbes to break down plastic that would otherwise remain in the environment for centuries. [57] However, as plastic is broken down into smaller pieces and eventually microplastics, there is a higher likelihood that it will be consumed by plankton and enter into the food chain. [58] As plankton are eaten by larger organisms, the plastic may eventually cause there to be bioaccumulation in fish and other marine species eaten by humans. [58] The following table lists some microorganisms with biodegradation capacity. [19]

Microorganisms and their biodegradation capacity [19]
MicroorganismPlastic typeDegradation capacity
Aspergillus tubingensis [59] Polyurethane Degraded 90% within 21 days [19]
Pestalotiopsis microspora [60] Polyurethane Degraded 90% within 16 days [19]
Bacillus pseudofirmus [61] LDPE Degraded 8.3% over 90 day observation period [61]
Salipaludibacillus agaradhaerens [62] LDPE Degraded 18.3 ± 0.3% and 13.7 ± 0.5% after 60 days of incubation [62]
Tenebrio molitor larvae [63] Polystyrene (PS)Degradation rates doubled for meal worms with diets that consisted of 10% PS

and 90% bran in comparison to meal worms who were exclusively fed PS [63]

Enterobacter sp. [19] Polystyrene (PS)Degraded a maximum of 12.4% in 30 days [19]
Phanerochaete chrysosporium [19] Polycarbonate Degraded 5.4% in 12 months [19]
Marine microbial consortium [19] Polycarbonate Degraded 8.3% in 12 months [19]
Ideonella sakaiensis [64] PET Fully degraded within six weeks [19]
Activated sludge [65] PET Degraded up to 60% within a year [19]
Galleria mellonella caterpillars [66] Polyethylene Degraded 13% within 14 hours [66] Average degradation rate of 0.23 mg cm-2 h-1 [66]
Zalerium maritimum [67] Polyethylene Degraded 70% within 21 days [19]

Oftentimes the degradation process of plastic by microorganisms is quite slow. [19] However, scientists have been working towards genetically modifying these organisms in order to increase plastic biodegradation potential. For instance, Ideonella sakaiensis has been genetically modified to break down PET at faster rates. [68] Multiple chemical and physical pretreatments have also demonstrated potential in enhancing the degree of biodegradation of different polymers. For instance UV or c-ray irradiation treatments, have been used to heighten the degree of biodegradation of certain plastics. [19]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodegradation</span> Decomposition by living organisms

Biodegradation is the breakdown of organic matter by microorganisms, such as bacteria and fungi. It is generally assumed to be a natural process, which differentiates it from composting. Composting is a human-driven process in which biodegradation occurs under a specific set of circumstances.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Geomicrobiology</span> Intersection of microbiology and geology

Geomicrobiology is the scientific field at the intersection of geology and microbiology and is a major subfield of geobiology. It concerns the role of microbes on geological and geochemical processes and effects of minerals and metals to microbial growth, activity and survival. Such interactions occur in the geosphere, the atmosphere and the hydrosphere. Geomicrobiology studies microorganisms that are driving the Earth's biogeochemical cycles, mediating mineral precipitation and dissolution, and sorbing and concentrating metals. The applications include for example bioremediation, mining, climate change mitigation and public drinking water supplies.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bioremediation</span> Process used to treat contaminated media such as water and soil

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system, living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc., in natural or artificial settings. The natural ability of organisms to adsorb, accumulate, and degrade common and emerging pollutants has attracted the use of biological resources in treatment of contaminated environment. In comparison to conventional physicochemical treatment methods bioremediation may offer advantages as it aims to be sustainable, eco-friendly, cheap, and scalable.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbial ecology</span> Study of the relationship of microorganisms with their environment

Microbial ecology is the ecology of microorganisms: their relationship with one another and with their environment. It concerns the three major domains of life—Eukaryota, Archaea, and Bacteria—as well as viruses. This relationship is often mediated by secondary metabolites produced my microorganism. These secondary metabolites are known as specialized metabolites and are mostly volatile or non volatile compounds. These metabolites include terpenoids, sulfur compounds, indole compound and many more.

Biological augmentation is the addition of archaea or bacterial cultures required to speed up the rate of degradation of a contaminant. Organisms that originate from contaminated areas may already be able to break down waste, but perhaps inefficiently and slowly.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biodegradable plastic</span> Plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms

Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually microbes, into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. Biodegradable plastics are commonly produced with renewable raw materials, micro-organisms, petrochemicals, or combinations of all three.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbial loop</span> Trophic pathway in marine microbial ecosystems

The microbial loop describes a trophic pathway where, in aquatic systems, dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is returned to higher trophic levels via its incorporation into bacterial biomass, and then coupled with the classic food chain formed by phytoplankton-zooplankton-nekton. In soil systems, the microbial loop refers to soil carbon. The term microbial loop was coined by Farooq Azam, Tom Fenchel et al. in 1983 to include the role played by bacteria in the carbon and nutrient cycles of the marine environment.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gammaproteobacteria</span> Class of bacteria

Gammaproteobacteria is a class of bacteria in the phylum Pseudomonadota. It contains about 250 genera, which makes it the most genus-rich taxon of the Prokaryotes. Several medically, ecologically, and scientifically important groups of bacteria belong to this class. All members of this class are Gram-negative. It is the most phylogenetically and physiologically diverse class of the Pseudomonadota.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microbiology</span> Study of microscopic organisms (microbes)

Microbiology is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being of unicellular (single-celled), multicellular, or acellular. Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology, and parasitology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastic</span> Material of a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic organic solids

Plastics are a wide range of synthetic or semi-synthetic materials that use polymers as a main ingredient. Their plasticity makes it possible for plastics to be molded, extruded or pressed into solid objects of various shapes. This adaptability, plus a wide range of other properties, such as being lightweight, durable, flexible, and inexpensive to produce, has led to their widespread use. Plastics typically are made through human industrial systems. Most modern plastics are derived from fossil fuel-based chemicals like natural gas or petroleum; however, recent industrial methods use variants made from renewable materials, such as corn or cotton derivatives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">North Atlantic garbage patch</span> Large floating field of debris in the North Atlantic Ocean

The North Atlantic garbage patch is a garbage patch of man-made marine debris found floating within the North Atlantic Gyre, originally documented in 1972. A 22-year research study conducted by the Sea Education Association estimates the patch to be hundreds of kilometers across, with a density of more than 200,000 pieces of debris per square kilometer. The garbage originates from human-created waste traveling from rivers into the ocean and mainly consists of microplastics. The garbage patch is a large risk to wildlife through plastic consumption and entanglement.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Microplastics</span> Extremely small fragments of plastic

Microplastics are fragments of any type of plastic less than 5 mm (0.20 in) in length, according to the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and the European Chemicals Agency. They cause pollution by entering natural ecosystems from a variety of sources, including cosmetics, clothing, food packaging, and industrial processes. The term microplastics is used to differentiate from larger, non-microscopic plastic waste. Two classifications of microplastics are currently recognized. Primary microplastics include any plastic fragments or particles that are already 5.0 mm in size or less before entering the environment. These include microfibers from clothing, microbeads, plastic glitter and plastic pellets. Secondary microplastics arise from the degradation (breakdown) of larger plastic products through natural weathering processes after entering the environment. Such sources of secondary microplastics include water and soda bottles, fishing nets, plastic bags, microwave containers, tea bags and tire wear. Both types are recognized to persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems, where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process. However, microplastics also accumulate in the air and terrestrial ecosystems. Because plastics degrade slowly, microplastics have a high probability of ingestion, incorporation into, and accumulation in the bodies and tissues of many organisms. The toxic chemicals that come from both the ocean and runoff can also biomagnify up the food chain. In terrestrial ecosystems, microplastics have been demonstrated to reduce the viability of soil ecosystems. As of 2023, the cycle and movement of microplastics in the environment was not fully known. Deep layer ocean sediment surveys in China (2020) show the presence of plastics in deposition layers far older than the invention of plastics, leading to suspected underestimation of microplastics in surface sample ocean surveys.

A microbial consortium or microbial community, is two or more bacterial or microbial groups living symbiotically. Consortiums can be endosymbiotic or ectosymbiotic, or occasionally may be both. The protist Mixotricha paradoxa, itself an endosymbiont of the Mastotermes darwiniensis termite, is always found as a consortium of at least one endosymbiotic coccus, multiple ectosymbiotic species of flagellate or ciliate bacteria, and at least one species of helical Treponema bacteria that forms the basis of Mixotricha protists' locomotion.

Biodegradable additives are additives that enhance the biodegradation of polymers by allowing microorganisms to utilize the carbon within the polymer chain as a source of energy. Biodegradable additives attract microorganisms to the polymer through quorum sensing after biofilm creation on the plastic product. Additives are generally in masterbatch formation that use carrier resins such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS) or polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Petroleum microbiology is a branch of microbiology that deals with the study of microorganisms that can metabolize or alter crude or refined petroleum products. These microorganisms, also called hydrocarbonoclastic microorganisms, can degrade hydrocarbons and, include a wide distribution of bacteria, methanogenic archaea, and some fungi. Not all hydrocarbonoclasic microbes depend on hydrocarbons to survive, but instead may use petroleum products as alternative carbon and energy sources. Interest in this field is growing due to the increasing use of bioremediation of oil spills.

Bioremediation of petroleum contaminated environments is a process in which the biological pathways within microorganisms or plants are used to degrade or sequester toxic hydrocarbons, heavy metals, and other volatile organic compounds found within fossil fuels. Oil spills happen frequently at varying degrees along with all aspects of the petroleum supply chain, presenting a complex array of issues for both environmental and public health. While traditional cleanup methods such as chemical or manual containment and removal often result in rapid results, bioremediation is less labor-intensive, expensive, and averts chemical or mechanical damage. The efficiency and effectiveness of bioremediation efforts are based on maintaining ideal conditions, such as pH, RED-OX potential, temperature, moisture, oxygen abundance, nutrient availability, soil composition, and pollutant structure, for the desired organism or biological pathway to facilitate reactions. Three main types of bioremediation used for petroleum spills include microbial remediation, phytoremediation, and mycoremediation. Bioremediation has been implemented in various notable oil spills including the 1989 Exxon Valdez incident where the application of fertilizer on affected shoreline increased rates of biodegradation.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Viral shunt</span>

The viral shunt is a mechanism that prevents marine microbial particulate organic matter (POM) from migrating up trophic levels by recycling them into dissolved organic matter (DOM), which can be readily taken up by microorganisms. The DOM recycled by the viral shunt pathway is comparable to the amount generated by the other main sources of marine DOM.

Hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria are a heterogeneous group of prokaryotes which can degrade and utilize hydrocarbon compounds as source of carbon and energy. Despite being present in most of environments around the world, several of these specialized bacteria live in the sea and have been isolated from polluted seawater.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastic degradation by marine bacteria</span> Ability of bacteria to break down plastic polymers

Plastic degradation in marine bacteria describes when certain pelagic bacteria break down polymers and use them as a primary source of carbon for energy. Polymers such as polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) are incredibly useful for their durability and relatively low cost of production, however it is their persistence and difficulty to be properly disposed of that is leading to pollution of the environment and disruption of natural processes. It is estimated that each year there are 9-14 million metric tons of plastic that are entering the ocean due to inefficient solutions for their disposal. The biochemical pathways that allow for certain microbes to break down these polymers into less harmful byproducts has been a topic of study to develop a suitable anti-pollutant.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plastivore</span> Organism capable of degrading and metabolising plastic

A plastivore is an organism capable of degrading and metabolising plastic. While plastic is normally thought of as non-biodegradable, a variety of bacteria, fungi and insects have been found to degrade it.

References

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