Pope Pius XII and China

Last updated

Significant doctrinal and diplomatic developments involving the Holy See and Chinese Catholics occurred during the Papacy of Pius XII (1939-1958). The Vatican recognized Chinese rites in 1939, elevated the first Chinese cardinal in 1946, and established a Chinese hierarchy.

Contents

In 1942, the Holy See and the Republic of China established diplomatic relations. Previous efforts to establish diplomatic efforts had been blocked by France, which had positioned itself as the authority for Chinese Catholics after the unequal treaties were imposed on China following the Qing Empire's defeat in the Opium War.

An anti-communist, Pius XII during the Chinese Civil War prohibited Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities. The Communists defeated the Chinese Nationalists and established the People's Republic of China in 1949. In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organizations would result in excommunication from the Church. In response, initiatives including Fr. Wang Liangzuo's "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation" gained support from Chinese Catholics. This led to responses by the apostolic nuncio in China. Ultimately, Chinese authorities arrested the apostolic nuncios on allegations of colluding with American intelligence and false accusations of participating in a plot to kill Mao Zedong, Under police guard, deporting him British Hong Kong. The PRC broke off relations with the Holy See and in 1953, apostolic nuncio to China moved to Taiwan.

The PRC government persecuted many Chinese Catholics in the 1950s. In 1957, it established the Catholic Patriotic Association, which is part of its United Front system. Through this process, the Communist Party gained ultimate control over the appointment of Bishops. The Vatican's position was and is that the appointment of bishops is the prerogative of the Pope.

Background

Following the British Empire's defeat of China in the First Opium War (1839-1841), China was required to permit foreign missionaries. [1] : 182  The unequal treaties gave European powers jurisdiction over missions and some authority over Chinese Christians. [1] : 182  France sought to frame itself as the protector of Catholics in China, which in turn led to a sustained diplomatic dispute with the Holy See about who had authority over Chinese Catholics. [1] : 182 

For centuries, the Catholic Church did not recognize the Chinese Confucian customs of honouring deceased family members and tried to suppress these in favor of Catholic dogma. The Chinese revered this as an ancient ritual but the Vatican considered it to be a religious exercise that conflicted with Catholic dogma. As a result, the Church made little progress in China in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Republic of China

Within a year of his election, Pope Pius XII made a dramatic change in policy on the Chinese Rites issue. At his request, the Sacred Congregation of the Propagation of Faith issued new instruction on December 8, 1939, by which Chinese customs were no longer considered "superstitious" but an honourable way of esteeming one's relatives and therefore permitted to Catholic Christians. [2] The Papal decree changed the ecclesiastical situation in China.

Pius XII was an anti-communist. [1] : 183  During the Chinese Civil War, Pius XII forbade Chinese Catholics from joining the Communist Party or participating in its activities. [1] : 183 

Until the 1940s, Vatican interests in China were represented by an Apostolic Delegate (which does not have formal diplomatic status). [1] : 182 In 1917, the ROC and the Holy See had agreed in principle to establish a diplomatic relationship. [1] : 182  France, which had framed itself as the protector of Catholics in China since the unequal treaties and had a long-standing dispute with the Holy See as a result, had blocked these diplomatic efforts. [1] : 182 

The Nationalist Government of China and the Vatican established diplomatic relations in June 1942, with the first Minister presenting his credentials in January 1943. [3] [4] As the Church began to flourish, Pius established a local ecclesiastical hierarchy; he received Archbishop Thomas Tien Ken-sin SVD into the Sacred College of Cardinals [3] and later elevated him to the See of Peking.

In summer 1949, the Communist forces captured the Nationalist capital, Nanjing. [1] : 183  The Nationalist government retreated to Guangzhou. [1] : 183  Although most of the diplomatic corps in Nanjing also went to Guangzhou, the Papal ambassador (the Internuncio) remained in Nanjing. [1] : 183  Pius XII instructed all Chinese bishops to remain in place. [1] : 183  Two Chinese bishops traveling abroad refused Pius XII's instructions to return to China, remaining in exile in Europe and America. [1] : 183 

People's Republic of China

After WWII, about four million Chinese were members of the Catholic faith. This was less than one percent of the population but numbers rapidly increased. In 1949, there existed 20 archdioceses, 39 apostolic prefectures, 3080 foreign missionaries, and 2557 Chinese priests. [5]

In 1948, there were fewer than 10,000 Catholics on Taiwan (where the Chinese Nationalist government retreated to in 1949) and 15 clergy. [1] : 187  In 1954, there 32,000 Catholics on Taiwan. [1] : 187 

Persecution

On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong officially declared the founding of the People's Republic of China. Its constitution from September 1949 guaranteed all vital freedoms, including the freedom of religion, and prohibited discrimination against believers. However, the government was committed to its ideological vision of Marxism, which was very hostile to religion and supported its eradication. The communist party quickly equated religious affiliation as a test of political and ideological loyalty. [6] It was especially hostile to religious bodies that it saw as outside of its control, as it considered the Catholic Church to be because of its relation to the Vatican and pope.

In Chinese cities, tolerance was practiced towards the Christian churches; but in rural areas, persecution began in 1950. New laws against counter-revolutionary activities from July 23, 1950, and February 1951. [7]

In 1950, the Holy See stated that participation in certain CCP-related organizations would result in excommunication from the Church. [8] : 33  In response, initiatives including Fr. Wang Liangzuo's "Guangyuan Declaration of Catholic Self-Reformation" gained support from Chinese Catholics. [8] : 33  In turn, apostolic nuncio Antonio Riberi circulated a letter denouncing such proposed reforms, and in March 1951 Fr. Li Weiguang and a group of 783 priests, nuns, and lay Catholics signed a declaration opposing what they viewed as Vatican interference and Western imperialism. [8] : 33  Chinese authorities arrested Riberi on allegations of colluding with American intelligence and false accusations of participating in a plot to kill Mao Zedong. [1] : 184  Under police guard, Riberi was deported to British Hong Kong. [1] : 184 

Following the outbreak of the Korean War, in which western nations such as the United States played a primary role, foreign missionaries (most of whom were westerners) were accused of being foreign agents, ready to turn the country over to imperialist forces. [7] They were expelled from China and have never been allowed to return. The government confiscated mission properties. [6] It refrained from jailing or executing Catholics in large numbers, as it feared an international war with the Western powers. The expulsion of foreign missionaries was intended to symbolize China's liberation from foreign imperialism.

The 'Preparatory Committee of the Oppose American and Aid Korea Three-Self Reform Movement of the Christian Church' was founded for the purpose of denouncing western missionaries in China. [6] All churches were required to demonize foreign missionaries (even ones they had worked with for decades), and Chinese Christians who refused to comply were forced to enroll in political study sessions. [6]

Y.T. Wu in July 1950 led a delegation on behalf of nineteen Protestant churches to meet with Premier Zhou Enlai. They jointly drafted a statement calling for Christian support for the government. Thus, the Three-Self Patriotic Movement was created and Christian communities in China severed all ties to foreign groups. YT Wu later became the chairman of the Three-Self organization in 1954. The official policy forbade Chinese religious entities from being under the control of foreign entities. [9] This proved especially difficult for Roman Catholics, since the pope was considered such a foreign entity.

The Catholic Church was considered extremely threatening due to its hierarchical structure, its nationwide networks, and its ability to block government penetration. China demanded Catholics give their full allegiance to the state, superseding allegiance to the Pope; political neutrality was not an option. [6]

Pope Pius XII responded in his 1951 encyclical Evangelii praecones.

Papal replies

Pope Pius XII, in his encyclical Ad Sinarum gentem on October 7, 1954, warned the Chinese pastors that a national church would no longer be Catholic. He took a flexible stand on financial and organizational autonomy, stating that the Church viewed missionary and financial aid activities always as transitional. The training of domestic institutions and the formation of native clergy was therefore always the priority. At the same time one should not belittle the generosity of other Christians, who finance missionary activities. Foreign priests came in the name of Christ to China, and not as agents of hostile powers. [10] Regarding the autonomy to teach, he agreed, it ought to differ according to place and conform, when possible, to the nature and particular character of the Chinese people, and to its ancient traditional customs:

Lastly, there are some among you who would wish that your Church would be completely independent, not only, as We have said, in regard to its government and finances, but also in regard to the teaching of Christian doctrine and sacred preaching, in which they try to claim "autonomy". We do not at all deny that the manner of preaching and teaching ought to differ according to place and therefore ought to conform, when possible, to the nature and particular character of the Chinese people, as also to its ancient traditional customs. If this is properly done, certainly greater fruits will be gathered among you.

In 1955, a mass arrest took place in the Shanghai diocese by the Chinese government. In one night on September 8, 1955, more than 200 clergy and faithful, including Bishop Ignatius Kung Pin-Mei, the Bishop of Shanghai, who refused to support "the Three Autonomies" movements to be independent of the Holy See, were arrested. [11]

Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association

In July 1957, Chinese delegates founded the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association, breaking Vatican ties, since Rome was considered an instrument of American capitalism and aggression. [12] Long "voluntary re-education courses" followed for clergy and lay people. Priests and bishops were encouraged to study Marxism–Leninism, the teachings of Chairman Mao, and the policies in order to give educated instruction to the Chinese people every Sunday. Counter-revolutionary elements were clergy who refused to participate in the patriotic program [12] March 24 and 26, 1958, patriotic bishops took over the dioceses of Hankau and Wuchang. [13] Others followed, after the rightful Catholic bishops were taken out and their legitimate representatives jailed as well, [14] despite the vigorous protests of Pope Pius XII. Foreign missionaries were expelled; the fate of most domestic religious is not known. [15]

The Chinese Catholic Patriotic Association is part of the United Front system. [1] : 180  Through this process, the Communist Party has ultimate control over the appointment of Bishops. [1] : 180  The Vatican's position is that the appointment of bishops is the prerogative of the Pope. [1] : 180 

The Catholic Church in China developed into two communities. [1] : 184  The "Patriotic" Church operates with approval of Chinese authorities and the "Underground" Church which professes loyalty to the Pope. [1] : 184  "Underground" does not mean the underground church is secret (the community mostly operates openly) but refers to its lack of official approval and lack of official support. [1] : 185 

The last encyclical of Pope Pius XII

With his encyclical Ad Apostolorum principis , Pope Pius XII protested persecution of Catholics in China.

Pope Pius XII's writings on China

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pope Pius XII</span> Head of the Roman Catholic Church from 1939 to 1958

Pope Pius XII was head of the Catholic Church and sovereign of the Vatican City State from 2 March 1939 until his death in October 1958. Before his election to the papacy, he served as secretary of the Department of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs, papal nuncio to Germany, and Cardinal Secretary of State, in which capacity he worked to conclude treaties with various European and Latin American nations, including the Reichskonkordat treaty with the German Reich.

The ChineseCatholic Patriotic Association (CCPA) is the national organization for Catholicism in China. It was established in 1957 after a group of Chinese Catholics met in Beijing with officials from the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and the Religious Affairs Bureau. It is the main organizational body of Catholics in China officially sanctioned by the Chinese government.

In Christianity, inculturation is the adaptation of Christian teachings and practices to cultures. This is a term that is generally used by Catholics and the Orthodox, whereas Protestants, especially associated with the World Council of Churches, prefer to use the term "contextual theology".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Catholic Church in China</span>

The Catholic Church first appeared in China upon the arrival of John of Montecorvino in China proper during the Yuan dynasty; he was the first Catholic missionary in the country, and would become the first bishop of Khanbaliq (1271–1368).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holy See–Italy relations</span> Bilateral relations

Holy See–Italy relations are the special relations between the Holy See, which is sovereign over the Vatican City, and the Italian Republic.

The Church policies after World War II of Pope Pius XII focused on material aid to war-torn Europe, the internationalization of the Roman Catholic Church, its persecution in Eastern Europe, China and Vietnam, and relations with the United States and the emerging European Union.

Ad Sinarum gentem, issued on October 7, 1954, is an encyclical of Pope Pius XII to the Chinese people on the super-nationality of the Church.

Novimus Nos is an Apostolic Letter of Pope Pius XII to the Catholic Bishops of the Eastern Catholic Rites, whose dioceses are devastated after years of persecution. The letter commemorates the 1000th anniversary of the conversion of Saint Olga, which was the beginning of Christianity in Russia.

Ad Apostolorum principis is an encyclical of Pope Pius XII on Communism and the Church in China. It describes systematic persecutions of bishops, priests, religious and faithful and the attempts of the government to establish a patriotic Catholic Church, independent of Rome.

Cupimus imprimis is an apostolic letter of Pope Pius XII to all the faithful in China regarding their persecutions and the persecution of the Catholic Church.

Pope Pius XII and Russia describes relations of the Vatican with the Soviet Union, Russia, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Eastern Catholic Churches resulting in the eradication of the Church in most parts of the Soviet Union during the Stalinist era. Most persecutions of the Church occurred during the pontificate of Pope Pius XII.

Persecutions against the Catholic Church took place during the papacy of Pope Pius XII (1939–1958). Pius' reign coincided with World War II (1939–1945), followed by the commencement of the Cold War and the accelerating European decolonisation. During his papacy, the Catholic Church faced persecution under Fascist and Communist governments.

Pope Pius XII and Poland includes Church relations from 1939 to 1958. Pius XII became Pope on the eve of the Second World War. The invasion of predominantly Catholic Poland by Nazi Germany in 1939 ignited the conflict and was followed soon after by a Soviet invasion of the Eastern half of Poland, in accordance with an agreement reached between the dictators Joseph Stalin and Adolf Hitler. The Catholic Church in Poland was about to face decades of repression, both at Nazi and Communist hands. The Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland was followed by a Stalinist repression which was particularly intense through the years 1946–1956. Pope Pius XII's policies consisted in attempts to avoid World War II, extensive diplomatic activity on behalf of Poland and encouragement to the persecuted clergy and faithful.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions</span>

Eastern Catholic victims of Soviet persecutions include bishops and others among the tens of thousands of victims of Soviet persecutions from 1918 to approximately 1980, under the state ideology of Marxist–Leninist atheism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">France–Holy See relations</span> Bilateral relations

Holy See–France relations are very ancient and have existed since the 5th century. They have been durable to the extent that France is sometimes called the eldest daughter of the Church.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Holy See–Israel relations</span> Bilateral relations

Diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the State of Israel, as well as a concordat defining the status and fiscal and property rights of the Catholic Church and related entities within Israel. Formal diplomatic relations between the two states were established after the adoption of the Fundamental Agreement by the two States on 30 December 1993. A Vatican Nunciature in Israel and an Israeli embassy in Rome were simultaneously opened on 19 January 1994. From the Vatican's point of view, the establishment of diplomatic relations between the two states is part of the Christian–Jewish reconciliation; and from the Israeli point of view, the normalization of diplomatic relations. Prior to the establishment of diplomatic relations, the interests of the Catholic Church in Israel were looked after by the Apostolic Delegate to Jerusalem and Palestine, the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem and the Custodian of the Holy Land, all of which continue to function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">China–Holy See relations</span> China–Holy See bilateral relations

There are no official bilateral relations between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Holy See. The Holy See instead recognizes the Republic of China (Taiwan) as the representative of China ever since the establishment of relations with the ROC government in 1942.

The Decree Against Communism was a 1949 Catholic Church document issued by the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office, and approved by Pope Pius XII, which declared Catholics who professed atheistic communist doctrine to be excommunicated as apostates from the Christian faith. The decree has since been abrogated, and is no longer valid.

The Roman Catholic Church in the 20th century entered into a period of renewal, responding to the challenge of increasing secularization of Western society and persecution resulting from great social unrest and revolutions in several countries. A major event in the period was the Second Vatican Council, which took place between 1962 and 1965. The church instituted reforms, especially in the 1970s after the conclusion of the Council, to modernize practices and positions. On taking office part way through the Council, Pope Paul VI referred to "an impatient struggle for renewal".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Germany–Holy See relations</span> Bilateral relations

Formal diplomatic relations between the Holy See and the current Federal Republic of Germany date to the 1951 and the end of the Allied occupation. Historically the Vatican has carried out foreign relations through nuncios, beginning with the Apostolic Nuncio to Cologne and the Apostolic Nuncio to Austria. Following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire and the Congress of Vienna, an Apostolic Nuncio to Bavaria replaced that of Cologne and that mission remained in Munich through several governments. From 1920 the Bavarian mission existed alongside the Apostolic Nuncio to Germany in Berlin, with which it was merged in 1934.

References

Sources

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 Moody, Peter (2024). "The Vatican and Taiwan: An Anomalous Diplomatic Relationship". In Zhao, Suisheng (ed.). The Taiwan Question in Xi Jinping's Era: Beijing's Evolving Taiwan Policy and Taiwan's Internal and External Dynamics. London and New York: Routledge. ISBN   9781032861661.
  2. ↑ Smit 195
  3. 1 2 Smit 197
  4. ↑ "Holy Spirit Study Centre - Publications - Tripod". hsstudyc.org.hk. Retrieved 2020-04-21.
  5. ↑ Giovannetti 230
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Lee, Joseph Tse-Hei. "Christianity in contemporary China: an update", Journal of Church and State 49.2 (2007)
  7. 1 2 Giovannetti 232
  8. 1 2 3 Yeh, Alice (2023-06-01). "Social Mobility, Migratory Vocations, and the Chinese Patriotic Catholic Association". China Perspectives (133): 31–41. doi:10.4000/chinaperspectives.15216. ISSN   2070-3449. S2CID   259562815.
  9. ↑ Marsh, Christopher. "Revisiting China's 'Great Wall' of separation: religious liberty in China today." Journal of Church and State 50.2 (2008)
  10. ↑ Ad Sinarum gentem, 12-14
  11. ↑ "Biography of Cardinal Kung". www.cardinalkungfoundation.org. Retrieved 2020-04-21.
  12. 1 2 Giovannetti 250
  13. ↑ Giovannetti 252
  14. ↑ Ad Apostulorum principis 49 in AAS, 1958
  15. ↑ Dammertz 379
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.