Rapport

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Rapport (rah-POR) is a close and harmonious relationship in which the people or groups concerned are "in sync" with each other, understand each other's feelings or ideas, and communicate smoothly. [1]

Contents

The word derives from the French verb rapporter which means literally to carry something back [2] [1] (in the sense of how people relate to each other: what one person sends out the other sends back). For example, people with rapport may realize that they share similar values, beliefs, knowledge, or behaviors around politics, music, or sports. [3] This may also mean that they engage in reciprocal behaviors such as posture mirroring or increased coordination in their verbal and nonverbal interactions. [4]

Rapport has been shown to have benefits for psychotherapy and medicine, [5] negotiation, [6] education, [7] and tourism, [8] among others. In each of these cases, the rapport between members of a dyad (e.g. a teacher and student or doctor and patient) allows the participants to coordinate their actions and establish a mutually beneficial working relationship, or what is often called a "working alliance". [5] In consumer-oriented guided group activities (e.g., a cooking class, a wine tour, and hiking group), rapport is not only dyadic and customer-employee oriented, but also customer-customer and group-oriented as customers consume and interact with each other in a group for an extended period. [8]

Building rapport

There are a number of techniques that are supposed to be beneficial in building rapport. These include matching body language (i.e., posture, gesture, etc.); [4] indicating attentiveness through maintaining eye contact; [9] and matching tempo, terminology, and breathing rhythm. [10] In conversation, some verbal behaviors associated with increased rapport are the use of positivity (or, positive "face management" [11] ), sharing personal information of gradually increasing intimacy (or, "self-disclosure"), and reference to shared interests or experiences. [9]

Building rapport can improve community-based research tactics, assist in finding a partner, improve student-teacher relationships, and allow employers to gain trust in employees. [12]

Building rapport takes time. Extroverts tend to have an easier time building rapport than introverts. Extraversion accelerates the process due to an increase in confidence and skillfulness in social settings. [13]

Methods

Coordination

Coordination, also called "mirroring" [4] means getting into rhythm with another person, or resembling their verbal or nonverbal behaviors:

Emotional mirroring
Empathizing with someone's emotional state by being on 'their side'. One listens for key words and problems so one can address and question them to better one's understanding of what the other person is saying and demonstrate empathy towards them. [14]
Posture mirroring
Matching the tone of a person's body language not through direct imitation (as this can appear as mockery) but through mirroring the general message of their posture and energy.
Tone and tempo mirroring
Matching the tone, tempo, inflection, and volume of another person's voice.

Mutual attentiveness

Another way to build rapport is for each partner to indicate their attentiveness to the other. [4] This attentiveness may take the form of nonverbal attentiveness, such as looking at the other person, [9] nodding at appropriate moments, or physical proximity, as seen in work on teachers' "immediacy" behaviors in the classroom. [7] Attentiveness might also be demonstrated through reciprocation of nonverbal behaviors like smiling or nodding, in a similar way to the coordination technique, [4] or in the reciprocal sharing of personal details about the other person that signal one's knowledge and attentiveness to their needs. [9]

Commonality

Commonality is the technique of deliberately finding something in common with a person in order to build a sense of camaraderie [15] and trust. This is done through references to shared interests, dislikes, and experiences. By sharing personal details or self-disclosing personal preferences or information, interlocutors can build commonality, and thus increase rapport. [9]

Face management

Another way to build rapport is through "positive face management", [16] (or, more simply: positivity). According to some psychologists, [16] we have a need to be seen in a positive light, known as our "face". By managing each other's "face", boosting it when necessary, or reducing negative impacts to it, we build rapport with others. [16]

Benefits

A number of benefits from building interpersonal rapport have been proposed, all of which concern smoother interactions, improved collaboration, and improved interpersonal outcomes, [5] [6] [7] though the specifics differ by the domain. These domains include but are not limited to healthcare, education, business, and social relationships.

In the health domain, provider-patient rapport is often called the "therapeutic alliance" or "therapeutic relationship"—the collaboration quality between provider and patient—which can predict therapy outcomes or patients' treatment adherence. [5] [17]

In education, teacher-student rapport is predictive of students' participation in the course, their course retention, their likelihood to take a course in that domain again, and has sometimes been used to predict course outcomes. [7] Some have argued that teacher-student rapport is an essential element of what makes an effective teacher, or the ability to manage interpersonal relationships and build a positive, pro-social, atmosphere of trust and reduced anxiety. [18] Student-student rapport, on the other hand, while largely out of the teacher's ability to control, is also predictive of reduced anxiety in the course, feelings of a supportive class culture, and improved participation in class discussions. [7] In these relationships, intentionally building rapport through individual meetings has shown an increase in student engagement and level of comfort in the classroom. [19]

In negotiation, rapport is beneficial for reaching mutually beneficial outcomes, [6] as partners are more likely to trust each other and be willing to cooperate and reach a positive outcome. However, interpersonal rapport in negotiation can lead to unethical behavior, particularly in impasse situations, where the interpersonal rapport may influence the negotiators to behave unethically. [20]

In terms of social relationships such as friendship and romantic relationships, [21] establishing rapport can build trust, increase feelings of closeness, and eliminate certain misunderstandings. [22] Rapport is necessary in establishing satisfaction and understanding acceptable behaviors in an interpersonal relationship. [21] Friendships and romantic relationships can overlap with other domains.

The study of rapport

To better study how rapport can lead to the above benefits, researchers generally adopt one of three main approaches: self-report surveys given to the participants, [7] third-party observations from a naive observer, [4] and some form of automated computational detection, using computer vision and machine learning. [9]

Self-report surveys typically consist of a set of questions given at the end of an interpersonal interaction, asking the participants to reflect on their relationship with another person and rate various aspects of that relationship, typically on a Likert scale. [6] [7] Though this is the most common approach, it suffers from unreliability of self-report data, such as the issue of separating participants' reflection on a single interaction with their relationship with the other person more broadly. [18]

A third-party observer can give a rapport rating to a particular segment (often called a "slice") of such an interaction. [4] [9] Other recent work uses techniques from computer vision, machine learning, and artificial intelligence to computationally detect the level of rapport between members of a dyad. [9]

Man holds video conference Sharif Sheikh Ahmed holding a video conference with the Forum for National Parties.jpg
Man holds video conference

Rapport and Technology

In the 21st century, online communication has had a huge impact on how business is conducted and how relationships are formed. [23] In the era of Covid-19 and the shift to remote work and schooling, the way in which rapport is built has evolved. Communicating solely through online channels challenges rapport building. [24] Challenges include technical difficulties interrupting video calls and direct messaging, interruptions and distractions from the user's home, a lack of intimacy and the ability to observe one another, lack of eye contact, mundane interactions, and the "pressure of presence". [25]

See also

Related Research Articles

Proxemics is the study of human use of space and the effects that population density has on behavior, communication, and social interaction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Body language</span> Type of nonverbal communication

Body language is a type of communication in which physical behaviors, as opposed to words, are used to express or convey information. Such behavior includes facial expressions, body posture, gestures, eye movement, touch and the use of space. The term body language is usually applied in regard to people but may also be applied to animals. The study of body language is also known as kinesics. Although body language is an important part of communication, most of it happens without conscious awareness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nonverbal communication</span> Interpersonal communication through wordless (mostly visual) cues

Nonverbal communication (NVC) is the transmission of messages or signals through a nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture, use of objects and body language. It includes the use of social cues, kinesics, distance (proxemics) and physical environments/appearance, of voice (paralanguage) and of touch (haptics). A signal has three different parts to it, including the basic signal, what the signal is trying to convey, and how it is interpreted. These signals that are transmitted to the receiver depend highly on the knowledge and empathy that this individual has. It can also include the use of time (chronemics) and eye contact and the actions of looking while talking and listening, frequency of glances, patterns of fixation, pupil dilation, and blink rate (oculesics).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Haptic communication</span> Communication via touch

Haptic communication is a branch of nonverbal communication that refers to the ways in which people and animals communicate and interact via the sense of touch. Touch is the most sophisticated and intimate of the five senses. Touch or haptics, from the ancient Greek word haptikos is extremely important for communication; it is vital for survival.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social behavior</span> Behavior among two or more organisms within the same species

Social behavior is behavior among two or more organisms within the same species, and encompasses any behavior in which one member affects the other. This is due to an interaction among those members. Social behavior can be seen as similar to an exchange of goods, with the expectation that when you give, you will receive the same. This behavior can be affected by both the qualities of the individual and the environmental (situational) factors. Therefore, social behavior arises as a result of an interaction between the two—the organism and its environment. This means that, in regards to humans, social behavior can be determined by both the individual characteristics of the person, and the situation they are in.

Expectancy violations theory (EVT) is a theory of communication that analyzes how individuals respond to unanticipated violations of social norms and expectations. The theory was proposed by Judee K. Burgoon in the late 1970s and continued through the 1980s and 1990s as "nonverbal expectancy violations theory", based on Burgoon's research studying proxemics. Burgoon's work initially analyzed individuals' allowances and expectations of personal distance and how responses to personal distance violations were influenced by the level of liking and relationship to the violators. The theory was later changed to its current name when other researchers began to focus on violations of social behavior expectations beyond nonverbal communication.

The uncertainty reduction theory, also known as initial interaction theory, developed in 1975 by Charles Berger and Richard Calabrese, is a communication theory from the post-positivist tradition. It is one of the few communication theories that specifically looks into the initial interaction between people prior to the actual communication process. The theory asserts the notion that, when interacting, people need information about the other party in order to reduce their uncertainty. In gaining this information people are able to predict the other's behavior and resulting actions, all of which according to the theory is crucial in the development of any relationship.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mirroring</span> Subconscious imitative behaviour

Mirroring is the behavior in which one person subconsciously imitates the gesture, speech pattern, or attitude of another. Mirroring often occurs in social situations, particularly in the company of close friends or family, often going unnoticed by both parties. The concept often affects other individuals' notions about the individual that is exhibiting mirroring behaviors, which can lead to the individual building rapport with others.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Social information processing (theory)</span>

Social information processing theory, also known as SIP, is a psychological and sociological theory originally developed by Salancik and Pfeffer in 1978. This theory explores how individuals make decisions and form attitudes in a social context, often focusing on the workplace. It suggests that people rely heavily on the social information available to them in their environments, including input from colleagues and peers, to shape their attitudes, behaviors, and perceptions.

The hyperpersonal model is a model of interpersonal communication that suggests computer-mediated communication (CMC) can become hyperpersonal because it "exceeds [face-to-face] interaction", thus affording message senders a host of communicative advantages over traditional face-to-face (FtF) interaction. The hyperpersonal model demonstrates how individuals communicate uniquely, while representing themselves to others, how others interpret them, and how the interactions create a reciprocal spiral of FtF communication. Compared to ordinary FtF situations, a hyperpersonal message sender has a greater ability to strategically develop and edit self-presentation, enabling a selective and optimized presentation of one's self to others.

Thin-slicing is a term used in psychology and philosophy to describe the ability to find patterns in events based only on "thin slices", or narrow windows, of experience. The term refers to the process of making very quick inferences about the state, characteristics or details of an individual or situation with minimal amounts of information. Research has found that brief judgments based on thin-slicing are similar to those judgments based on much more information. Judgments based on thin-slicing can be as accurate, or even more so, than judgments based on much more information.

Social presence theory explores how the "sense of being with another" is influenced by digital interfaces in human-computer interactions. Developed from the foundations of interpersonal communication and symbolic interactionism, social presence theory was first formally introduced by John Short, Ederyn Williams, and Bruce Christie in The Social Psychology of Telecommunications. Research on social presence theory has recently developed to examine the efficacy of telecommunications media, including SNS communications. The theory notes that computer-based communication is lower in social presence than face-to-face communication, but different computer-based communications can affect the levels of social presence between communicators and receivers.

Cognitive valence theory (CVT) is a theoretical framework that describes and explains the process of intimacy exchange within a dyad relationship. Peter A. Andersen, PhD created the cognitive valence theory to answer questions regarding intimacy relationships among colleagues, close friends and intimate friends, married couples and family members. Intimacy or immediacy behavior is that behavior that provides closeness or distance within a dyad relationship. Closeness projects a positive feeling in a relationship, and distance projects a negative feeling within a relationship. Intimacy or immediacy behavior can be negatively valenced or positively valenced. Valence, associated with physics, is used here to describe the degree of negativity or positivity in expected information. If your partner perceives your actions as negative, then the interaction may repel your partner away from you. If your partner perceives your actions as positive, then the interaction may be accepted and may encourage closeness. Affection and intimacy promotes positive valence in a relationship. CVT uses non-verbal and verbal communications criteria to analyze behavioral situations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Interpersonal communication</span> Exchange of information among people

Interpersonal communication is an exchange of information between two or more people. It is also an area of research that seeks to understand how humans use verbal and nonverbal cues to accomplish a number of personal and relational goals.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Posture (psychology)</span> Aspect of nonverbal communication

In humans, posture can provide a significant amount of important information through nonverbal communication. Psychological studies have also demonstrated the effects of body posture on emotions. This research can be traced back to Charles Darwin's studies of emotion and movement in humans and animals. Currently, many studies have shown that certain patterns of body movements are indicative of specific emotions. Researchers studied sign language and found that even non-sign language users can determine emotions from only hand movements. Another example is the fact that anger is characterized by forward whole body movement. The theories that guide research in this field are the self-validation or perception theory and the embodied emotion theory.

Social cues are verbal or non-verbal signals expressed through the face, body, voice, motion and guide conversations as well as other social interactions by influencing our impressions of and responses to others. These percepts are important communicative tools as they convey important social and contextual information and therefore facilitate social understanding.

Affiliative conflict theory (ACT) is a social psychological approach that encompasses interpersonal communication and has a background in nonverbal communication. This theory postulates that "people have competing needs or desires for intimacy and autonomy". In any relationship, people will negotiate and try to rationalize why they are acting the way they are in order to maintain a comfortable level of intimacy.

Social Mirror Theory (SMT) states that people are not capable of self-reflection without taking into consideration a peer's interpretation of the experience. In other words, people define and resolve their internal musings through other's viewpoint. SMT's background is derived from the 1800s from concepts related to the study of public opinion and social interaction by Wilhelm Dilthey, the German philosopher and sociologist.

Nonverbal influence is the act of affecting or inspiring change in others' behaviors and attitudes by way of tone of voice or body language and other cues like facial expression. This act of getting others to embrace or resist new attitudes can be achieved with or without the use of spoken language. It is a subtopic of nonverbal communication. Many individuals instinctively associate persuasion with verbal messages. Nonverbal influence emphasizes the persuasive power and influence of nonverbal communication. Nonverbal influence includes appeals to attraction, similarity and intimacy.

In psychology, interpersonal accuracy (IPA) refers to an individual's ability to make correct inferences about others’ internal states, traits, or other personal attributes. For example, a person who is able to correctly recognize emotions, motivation, or thoughts in others demonstrates interpersonal accuracy. IPA is an important skill in everyday life and is related to many positive social interaction outcomes.

References

  1. 1 2 "Rapport – Definition". Merriam Webster. Retrieved 22 Mar 2011.
  2. ↑ Manser, Martin; Turton, Nigel (1998). Advanced Learners Dictionary. Wordsworth Editions. p. 574. ISBN   978-1-85326-763-5.
  3. ↑ Neil H. Katz; Marcia Koppelman Sweedler; John W. Lawyer (6 December 2010). Communication & Conflict Resolution Skills. Kendall Hunt Publishing Company. ISBN   978-0-7575-7875-5.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Tickle-Degnen, Linda; Rosenthal, Robert (1990). "The Nature of Rapport and Its Nonverbal Correlates" (PDF). Psychological Inquiry. 1 (4): 285–293. doi:10.1207/s15327965pli0104_1. S2CID   2102460.
  5. 1 2 3 4 Falkenström, F; Hatcher, R; Skjulsvik, T; Larsson, M; Holmqvist, R (2014). "Development and Validation of a 6-item Working Alliance Psychotherapy" (PDF). Psychological Assessment. 27 (1): 169–83. doi:10.1037/pas0000038. PMID   25346997.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Drolet, Aimee; Morris, Michael (2000). "Rapport in Conflict Resolution: Accounting for How Face-to-Face Contact Fosters Mutual Cooperation in Mixed-Motive Conflict". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 36: 25–30. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.321.8823 . doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1395. S2CID   15998184.
  7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Frisby, Brandi; Martin, Matthew (2010). "Instructor–Student and Student–Student Rapport in the Classroom". Communication Education. 59 (2): 146. doi:10.1080/03634520903564362. S2CID   144995267.
  8. 1 2 Lee, Linda W.; Boon, Edward; McCarthy, Ian P. (2021-12-01). "Does getting along matter? Tourist-tourist rapport in guided group activities". Tourism Management. 87: 104381. doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2021.104381. ISSN   0261-5177.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Zhao, Ran; Papangelis, Alexandros; Cassell, Justine (2014). "Towards a Dyadic Computational Model of Rapport Management for Human-Virtual Agent Interaction" (PDF). In Bickmore, T.; Marsella, S.; Sidner, C. (eds.). Intelligent Virtual Agents. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 8637. Springer. pp. 514–527. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-09767-1_62. ISBN   978-3-319-09767-1. S2CID   13854040. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-04-01.
  10. ↑ Program on Negotiation Staff (2022-06-23). "Body Language in Negotiation Can Build Rapport—Without Saying a Word". Program on Negotiation at Harvard Law School. Retrieved 2022-11-25.
  11. ↑ Hopkins, Alexander E. (2015). "Face Management Theory: Modern Conceptualizations and Future Directions". Inquiries Journal. 7 (4).
  12. ↑ Le Dantec, Christopher A.; Fox, Sarah (2015-02-28). "Strangers at the Gate: Gaining Access, Building Rapport, and Co-Constructing Community-Based Research" . Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing. CSCW '15. New York, NY, USA: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 1348–1358. doi:10.1145/2675133.2675147. ISBN   978-1-4503-2922-4. S2CID   2989347.
  13. ↑ Duffy, Korrina A.; Chartrand, Tanya L. (November 2015). "The Extravert Advantage: How and When Extraverts Build Rapport With Other People" . Psychological Science. 26 (11): 1795–1802. doi:10.1177/0956797615600890. ISSN   0956-7976. PMID   26408038. S2CID   26416585.
  14. ↑ Mallette, Claire; Yonge, Olive (2022). Arnold, Elizabeth; Boggs, Kathleen Underman (eds.). Arnold and Boggs's interpersonal relationships: professional communication skills for Canadian nurses. Toronto, Ont. ISBN   978-0-323-76366-0. OCLC   1336862012.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ "Camaraderie". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
  16. 1 2 3 Spencer-Oatey, Helen (2005). "(Im)Politeness, Face and Perceptions of Rapport: Unpackaging their Bases and Interrelationships". Politeness Research. 1 (1): 95–119. doi:10.1515/jplr.2005.1.1.95. S2CID   144581286.
  17. ↑ Leach, Matthew J. (2005-11-01). "Rapport: A key to treatment success". Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice. 11 (4): 262–265. doi:10.1016/j.ctcp.2005.05.005. ISSN   1744-3881. PMID   16290897.
  18. 1 2 Rogers, Daniel (2015). "Further Validation of the Learning Alliance Inventory: The Roles of Working Alliance, Rapport, and Immediacy in Student Learning". Teaching of Psychology. 42 (1): 19–25. doi:10.1177/0098628314562673. S2CID   145451184.
  19. ↑ Starcher, Keith (2011-10-01). "Intentionally Building Rapport With Students" . College Teaching. 59 (4): 162. doi:10.1080/87567555.2010.516782. ISSN   8756-7555. S2CID   143097274.
  20. ↑ Jap, Sandy; Robertson, Diana; Hamilton, Ryan (2011). "The Dark Side of Rapport: Agent Misbehavior Face-to-Face and Online". Management Science. 57 (9): 1610–1622. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1110.1359. S2CID   14594150. SSRN   1789782. Archived from the original on 2018-07-19.
  21. 1 2 Usera, Daniel, ed. (2021). "11.3: Romantic Relationships". Communicating to Connect—Interpersonal Communication for Today. Social Sciences LibreTexts. Retrieved 2022-11-27.
  22. ↑ Glesne, Corrine (1989-01-01). "Rapport and friendship in ethnographic research". International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education. 2 (1): 45–54. doi:10.1080/0951839890020105. ISSN   0951-8398.
  23. ↑ Wood, Andrew F.; Smith, Matthew J. (2004). Online Communication: Linking Technology, Identity, & Culture . doi:10.4324/9781410611321. ISBN   9781135616021.
  24. ↑ Reñosa, Mark Donald C.; Mwamba, Chanda; Meghani, Ankita; West, Nora S.; Hariyani, Shreya; Ddaaki, William; Sharma, Anjali; Beres, Laura K.; McMahon, Shannon (2021-01-01). "Selfie consents, remote rapport, and Zoom debriefings: collecting qualitative data amid a pandemic in four resource-constrained settings". BMJ Global Health. 6 (1): e004193. doi:10.1136/bmjgh-2020-004193. ISSN   2059-7908. PMC   7798410 . PMID   33419929.
  25. ↑ Weller, Susie (2017-11-02). "Using internet video calls in qualitative (longitudinal) interviews: some implications for rapport". International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 20 (6): 613–625. doi:10.1080/13645579.2016.1269505. ISSN   1364-5579. S2CID   152181042.

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