Tambaqui

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Tambaqui
Temporal range: Miocene - recent
Schwarzer Pacu Colossoma macropomum Tierpark Hellabrunn-1.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Actinopterygii
Order: Characiformes
Family: Serrasalmidae
Genus: Colossoma
C. H. Eigenmann & C. H. Kennedy, 1903
Species:
C. macropomum
Binomial name
Colossoma macropomum
(G. Cuvier, 1818)
Synonyms
  • Myletes macropomusCuvier, 1816
  • Myletes oculus Cope, 1872
  • Myletes nigripinnisCope, 1878
  • Melloina tambaquiAmaral Campos, 1946

The tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) is a large species of freshwater fish in the family Serrasalmidae. It is native to tropical South America, but kept in aquaculture and introduced elsewhere. [2] It is also known by the names black pacu, black-finned pacu, giant pacu, cachama, gamitana, and sometimes as pacu (a name used for several other related species).

Contents

The tambaqui is currently the only member of Colossoma, but the Piaractus species were also included in this genus in the past. [3]

Distribution

The tambaqui is native to freshwater habitats in the Amazon and Orinoco basins of tropical South America. [2] In nutrient-rich whitewater rivers such as the Madeira, Juruá, Putumayo (Içá) and Purus it ranges throughout, all the way up to their headwaters. [4] In nutrient-poor blackwater rivers such as the Rio Negro and clearwater rivers such as several rightbank tributaries of the Madeira it generally only occurs in the lower c. 300 km (200 mi) and is rare beyond the lowermost c. 150 km (100 mi). [4] It is widely kept in aquaculture outside its native range in South America. [2] Miocene fossils are known from the Magdalena River, but modern occurrence in this river is due to introductions by humans. [5]

Description

Specimen at the Shedd Aquarium Pacu shedd.jpg
Specimen at the Shedd Aquarium

The tambaqui is the heaviest characin in the Americas (the lighter Salminus can grow longer) and the second heaviest scaled freshwater fish in South America (after the arapaima). [6] It can reach up to 1.1 m (3.6 ft) in total length and 44 kg (97 lb) in weight, [5] but a more typical size is 0.7 m (2.3 ft). [2] The largest caught by rod-and-reel and recognized by IGFA weighed 32.4 kg (71 lb). [7] After the flood season, around 10% of a tambaqui's weight is the visceral fat reserves and at least another 5% is fat found in the head and muscles. [6]

It is similar in shape to the piranha and juveniles are sometimes confused with the carnivorous fish; the tambaqui is tall and laterally compressed with large eyes and a slightly arched back. Unlike more predatory species, the teeth of the tambaqui are molar-like, an adaption for crushing plant seeds and nuts. [6] The lower half of its body is typically mainly blackish. The remaining is mainly gray, yellowish or olive, but the exact hue varies considerably and depends in part on habitat with individuals in blackwater being much darker than individuals from whitewater. [6] The pelvic, anal and small pectoral fins are black. The tambaqui resembles the Red-bellied pacu (Piaractus brachypomus), but the latter species has a more rounded head profile (less elongated and pointed) [8] and a smaller adipose fin that lacks rays, as well as differences in teeth and operculum. [9] [10]

Hybrids between the tambaqui and the similar Piaractus (both species) have been produced in aquaculture, [11] and are occasionally seen in the wild. [5] The hybrid offspring can be difficult to identify by appearance alone. [11]

Ecology

Habitat, breeding and migration

This species is mostly solitary, [2] but it migrates in large schools. [6] During the non-breeding season, adults stay in flooded forests of white (várzea), clear and blackwater (igapó) rivers. [2] [6] They stay there for four to seven months during the flood season, but as the water level drops they move into the main river channels or to a lesser extent floodplain lakes. [4] [6] At the start of the next flood season, large schools move into whitewater rivers where they spawn between November and February. [4] [6] The exact spawning location in the whitewater rivers is not entirely certain, but apparently along woody shores [4] or grassy levees. [6] The schools then break up as the adults return to the flooded forest of white, clear and blackwater rivers, and the annual pattern is repeated. [4] [6] Larvae are found in whitewater rivers, including the Amazon River itself. [4] Juveniles stay near macrophytes in floodplains and flooded forests year-round, only switching to the adult migration pattern when reaching sexual maturity. [2] [4] Maturity is reached at a length of about 60 cm (2 ft). [5]

The species regularly reaches an age of 40 years and may reach up to 65. [5]

Oxygen, salt and pH resistance

When there is not enough oxygen in the river or lake, tambaqui obtain oxygen from the air. They are able to do this by their physical and inner body parts, such as their gills and swim bladder vascularization. [12]

Tambaqui is a fish that lives in freshwater. Juveniles can survive in brackish water when the salinity is gradually raised. Salinity levels above 20 g/L result in death. [13] When juveniles are reared in salinities above 10 g/L, there is a significant detrimental effect on growth, haematological parameters and osmoregulation. [13]

In an experiment, tambaqui had the pH of their water changed. No deaths occurred to tambaqui if the pH did not fall to 3.0. The only internal difference that was noted in tambaqui when the pH was being altered was a change in the acid-base of the plasma and red cells. [14]

In another experiment, tambaquis were exposed to pH drops from 6.0 to 4.0, similar to what they would encounter in their natural habitat. Researchers found that the microbial communities of the tambaqui fish gut were very resilient to the pH drops, which could explain part of the ability of tambaquis to migrate between black and white water streams in the Amazon. [15]

Diet

Tambaqui consume fruits and seeds, especially from woody angiosperms and herbaceous species. Depending on the quantity and food quality of these foods, it causes the fish to decide on their location of their habitat. [16] [17] In one study during the high-water season, 78—98 percent of the diet consisted of fruits. [16] Another study of the stomach content of 138 specimens during the high-water season found that 44% of the weight was fruits and seeds, 30% was zooplankton and 22% was wild rice. [6] Among 125 specimens during the low-water season, a higher percentage had empty stomachs (14%, about ten times more than in the high-water season) and about 70% of the total stomach content weight was zooplankton. [6] In addition to seeds, fruits, wild rice and zooplankton, smaller levels of insects, snails, shrimps, small fish, filamentous algae and decaying plants are consumed. [2] [6]

Seed dispersal

The tambaqui plays an important role in dispersing plant seeds. [18] [19] [20] The fruit seeds that fall in the water are consumed by tambaqui and the seed is dispersed somewhere else; this is similar to what birds do. This consumption includes about 35% of the trees and lianas during flood season and these seeds can grow after the floodwater calms down. Compared to the younger and smaller tambaqui, larger and older tambaqui are able to disperse the seeds in a faster rate. [21] The gut of a well-fed 10 kg (22 lb) tambaqui can contain more than 1 kg (2.2 lb) seeds. [5] In general, more seeds are able to pass undamaged through the Red-bellied pacu (Piaractus brachypomus) than the tambaqui, meaning that the former overall is a more efficient seed disperser. [16]

Relationship to humans

A tambaqui for sale in the Manaus Fish Market, Brazil. This fish was approximately .mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px} 85 cm (33+1/2 in) long. Colossoma macropomum ostergaard.jpg
A tambaqui for sale in the Manaus Fish Market, Brazil. This fish was approximately 85 cm (33+1⁄2 in) long.

The meat of the tambaqui is popular and fetches top prices in fish markets in its native range. [4] It is marketed fresh and frozen. [2]

Wild populations of the tambaqui have declined because of overfishing and many currently caught fish are juveniles. [4] In Manaus alone, the landings fell from c. 15,000 metric tons (14,800 long tons) per year in the 1970s to 800 metric tons (790 long tons) in 1996. [4] Based on a review by IBAMA, it was the 11th most caught fish by weight in the Brazilian Amazon in 1998 (just ahead of the closely related pirapitinga, Piaractus brachypomus). [4]

The tambaqui is now widely kept in aquaculture. It can live in oxygen-poor waters and is very resistant to diseases. [22] In Brazil, tambaqui is one of the main farmed fish species, and therefore important to the country's economy. [23] Studies of farmed tambaqui in Brazil have revealed a genetic diversity similar to that seen among wild populations. [24] In fish farms this species is sometimes hybridized with Piaractus to produce offspring that accept a wider temperature range (colder water) than pure tambaqui. [11]

In Thailand, this fish, known locally as pla khu dam (ปลาคู้ดำ), was introduced from Hong Kong and Singapore as part of fish-farming projects, but has adapted to local conditions and thrives in the wild in some areas. [25] There is also an introduced population in Puerto Rico and singles (likely deliberate releases by aquarists) have been caught in a wide range of U.S. states, [26] but only those in the warmest regions can survive. [27]

Juveniles 5–7.5 cm (2–3 in) long, sometimes labelled as "vegetarian piranha", are frequently seen in the aquarium trade, but they rapidly grow to a large size and require an enormous tank. [27]

Related Research Articles

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The Amazon river dolphin, also known as the boto, bufeo or pink river dolphin, is a species of toothed whale endemic to South America and is classified in the family Iniidae. Three subspecies are currently recognized: I. g. geoffrensis, I. g. boliviensis and I. g. humboldtiana. The position of the Araguaian river dolphin within the clade is still unclear. The three subspecies are distributed in the Amazon basin, the upper Madeira River in Bolivia, and the Orinoco basin, respectively.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Piranha</span> Common name for certain fishes of the family Serrasalmidae

A piranha or piraña is any of a number of freshwater fish species in the family Serrasalmidae, or the subfamily Serrasalminae within the tetra family, Characidae in order Characiformes. These fish inhabit South American rivers, floodplains, lakes and reservoirs. Although often described as extremely predatory and mainly feeding on fish, their dietary habits vary extensively, and they will also take plant material, leading to their classification as omnivorous.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blackwater river</span> Slow, dark river in forested swamps or wetlands

A blackwater river is a type of river with a slow-moving channel flowing through forested swamps or wetlands. Most major blackwater rivers are in the Amazon Basin and the Southern United States. The term is used in fluvial studies, geology, geography, ecology, and biology. Not all dark rivers are blackwater in that technical sense. Some rivers in temperate regions, which drain or flow through areas of dark black loam, are simply black due to the color of the soil; these rivers are black mud rivers. There are also black mud estuaries.

<i>Piaractus mesopotamicus</i> Species of fish

Piaractus mesopotamicus, the small-scaled pacu, Paraná River pacu or simply pacu, is a South American ray-finned fish that is native to the Paraguay-Paraná River basin, but it has been introduced by aquaculture activities in a wider area. In its native range it is also known as the pacú chato, pez chato or mbiraí-piraí.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Pacu</span> Common name for several species of fish

Pacu is a common name used to refer to several species of omnivorous South American freshwater serrasalmid fish related to piranhas. Pacu and piranha do not have similar teeth, the main difference being jaw alignment; piranha have pointed, razor-sharp teeth in a pronounced underbite, whereas pacu have squarer, straighter teeth and a less severe underbite, or a slight overbite. Pacu, unlike piranha, mainly feed on plant material and not flesh or scales. Additionally, the pacu can reach much larger sizes than piranha, at up to 1.08 m in total length and 40 kg (88 lb) in weight.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Serrasalmidae</span> Family of fishes

The Serrasalmidae (serrasalmids) are a family of characiform fishes, recently elevated to family status. It includes more than 90 species. The name means "serrated salmon family", which refers to the serrated keel running along the belly of these fish. Fish classified as Serrasalmidae are also known by these common names: pacu, piranha, and silver dollar. These common names generally designate differing dental characteristics and feeding habits.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Red-bellied piranha</span> Fish species native to South America

The red-bellied piranha, also known as the red piranha, is a type of piranha native to South America, found in the Amazon, Paraguay, Paraná and Essequibo basins, as well as coastal rivers of northeastern Brazil. This fish is locally abundant in its freshwater habitat. They are omnivorous foragers and feed on insects, worms, crustaceans, and fish. They are not a migratory species but do travel to seek out conditions conducive to breeding and spawning during periods of increased rainfall. Red-bellied piranhas often travel in shoals as a predatory defense but rarely exhibit group hunting behavior. Acoustic communication is common and is sometimes exhibited along with aggressive behaviors. They are a popular aquarium fish.

<i>Hypophthalmus</i> Genus of fishes

Hypophthalmus is a genus of long-whiskered catfishes native to freshwater in tropical and subtropical South America.

<i>Piaractus brachypomus</i> Species of fish

Piaractus brachypomus also known as the red-bellied Pacu or pirapitinga, is a large species of pacu, a close relative of piranhas and silver dollars, in the serrasalmid family. It is native to the Amazon basin in tropical South America, but it formerly included populations in the Orinoco, which was described in 2019 as a separate species, P. orinoquensis. Additionally, P. brachypomus is widely farmed and has been introduced to other regions. In South Florida they are invasive in rivers, canals or lakes.

<i>Igapó</i> Flooded Amazon forests in Brazil

Igapó is a word used in Brazil for blackwater-flooded forests in the Amazon biome. These forests and similar swamp forests are seasonally inundated with freshwater. They typically occur along the lower reaches of rivers and around freshwater lakes. Freshwater swamp forests are found in a range of climate zones, from boreal through temperate and subtropical to tropical. In the Amazon Basin of Brazil, a seasonally whitewater-flooded forest is known as a várzea, which is similar to igapó in many regards; the key difference between the two habitats is in the type of water that floods the forest.

<i>Mylossoma</i> Genus of fishes

Mylossoma is a genus of serrasalmids from tropical and subtropical South America, including the basins of the Amazon, Orinoco, Lake Maracaibo and Paraguay-Paraná. These common fish are found both in main river sections and floodplains. They support important fisheries and based on a review by IBAMA, they are the seventh most caught fish by weight in the Brazilian Amazon. They primarily feed on plant material such as seeds and fruits, and in their ecology they generally resemble the larger tambaqui. Mylossoma reach up to 28.5 cm (11.2 in) in length and 1 kg (2.2 lb) in weight.

<i>Piaractus</i> Genus of fishes

Piaractus is a genus of large serrasalmid from South America. The two traditionally recognized species of Piaractus are very similar in appearance and were formerly included in the genus Colossoma, which currently only contains another similar species, the tambaqui. A third Piaractus was described in 2019 as a new species, but it was formerly considered a subpopulation of P. brachypomus.

Red-bellied pacu can refer to the following species of fish of the subfamily Serrasalminae:

A várzea forest is a seasonal floodplain forest inundated by whitewater rivers that occurs in the Amazon biome. Until the late 1970s, the definition was less clear and várzea was often used for all periodically flooded Amazonian forests.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whitewater river (river type)</span> Category for certain types of rivers

A whitewater river is classified based on its chemistry, sediments and water colour. Whitewater rivers have high levels of suspended sediments, giving the water a pH that is near-neutral, a high electric conductivity and a pale muddy, café au lait-like colour. Whitewater rivers are of great ecological importance and are important to local fisheries. The major seasonal Amazonian floodplains known as várzea receive their water from them.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Marajó várzea</span>

The Marajó várzea (NT0138) is an ecoregion of seasonally and tidally flooded várzea forest in the Amazon biome. It covers a region of sedimentary islands and floodplains at the mouth of the Amazon that is flooded twice daily as the ocean tides push the river waters onto the land. The flooded forests provide food for a wide variety of fruit-eating fish, aquatic mammals, birds and other fauna. It has no protected areas and is threatened by cattle and water-buffalo ranching, logging and fruit plantations.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gurupa várzea</span> Ecoregion in Brazil

The Gurupa várzea (NT0126) is an ecoregion of seasonally and tidally flooded várzea forest along the Amazon River in the Amazon biome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Purus várzea</span> Ecoregion in the Amazon biome

The Purus várzea (NT0156) is an ecoregion of seasonally flooded várzea forest in the central Amazon basin. It is part of the Amazon biome. The ecoregion is home to a vegetation adapted to floods of up to 12 metres (39 ft) that may last for eight months. There is a great variety of fish and birds, but relatively fewer mammals. Ground-dwelling mammals must migrate to higher ground during the flood season. Threats include logging, cattle farming, over-fishing and mercury pollution from gold mining.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iquitos várzea</span>

The Iquitos várzea (NT0128) is an ecoregion of flooded forest along rivers in Brazil, Peru and Bolivia in the west of the Amazon biome. The forest is seasonally flooded up to 7 metres (23 ft) by whitewater rivers carrying nutrient-rich sediment from the Andes. The meandering rivers often shift course, creating a complex landscape of oxbow lakes, marshes, levees and bars, with grasslands, shrubs and forests in different stages of succession. During the extended flood periods fish enter the forest in search of fruit. The várzea is accessible by the navigable rivers that run through it, and has suffered from extensive deforestation to extract timber and create pasture for livestock.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Clearwater river (river type)</span> River classification based on chemistry, sediments and water colour

A clearwater river is classified based on its chemistry, sediments and water colour. Clearwater rivers have a low conductivity, relatively low levels of dissolved solids, typically have a neutral to slightly acidic pH and are very clear with a greenish colour. Clearwater rivers often have fast-flowing sections.

References

  1. ↑ Brejão, G.L. (2024). "Colossoma macropomum". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2024: e.T49830760A85567354. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2024.RLTS.T49830760A85567354.en . Retrieved 28 October 2024.
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Froese, Rainer; Pauly, Daniel (eds.). "Colossoma macropomum". FishBase . July 2007 version.
  3. ↑ OPEFE (27 December 2011). Genus Piaractus. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Araujo-Lima, C.A.R.M.; and M.L. Ruffino (2003). Migratory Fishes of the Brazilian Amazon. Pp. 233—302 in: Carolsfeld, J.; B. Harvey; C. Ross; and A. Baer (editors). Migratory Fishes of South America. ISBN   978-0968395820
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 van der Sleen, P.; J.S. Albert, eds. (2017). Field Guide to the Fishes of the Amazon, Orinoco, and Guianas. Princeton University Press. pp. 182–183. ISBN   978-0691170749.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 Goulding, M.; M.L. Carvalho (1982). "Life history and management of the tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum, Characidae): an important Amazonian food fish". Revista Brasileira de Zoologia. 1 (2): 107–133. doi: 10.1590/S0101-81751982000200001 .
  7. ↑ "Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum)". The International Game Fish Association. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  8. ↑ Cagauan, A.G (2007). Red-bellied Pacu in the Philippines. Journal of Environmental Science and Management 10(1): 42—47.
  9. ↑ Nico, L.; P. Fuller; and M. Neilson (22 October 2013). Piaractus brachypomus. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved 2 March 2017.
  10. ↑ Lauzanna, L.; and G. Loubens (1985). Peces del Rio Marmoré. ISBN   2-7099-0779-8.
  11. 1 2 3 Gomes, Schneider, Barros, Sampaio, Hashimoto, Porto-Foresti, and Sampaio (2012). Innovative molecular approach to the identification of Colossoma macropomum and its hybrids. An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 84(2).
  12. ↑ Val, A.L. (November–December 1995). "Oxygen-transfer in fish - Morphological and molecular adjustments". Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 28 (11–12): 1119–1127. PMID   8728838.
  13. 1 2 Siqueira Fiúza, Luana; Moraes Aragão, Natália; Ribeiro Junior, Hermano Pinto; Gazzineo de Moraes, Manuella; Castelo Branco Rocha, Ítalo Régis; Lustosa Neto, Antônio Diogo; Rocha de Sousa, Rommel; Malvino Madrid, Raul Mário; Gonçalves de Oliveira, Elenise; Farias Costa, Francisco Hiran (March 2015). "Effects of salinity on the growth, survival, haematological parameters and osmoregulation of tambaqui Colossoma macropomum juveniles". Aquaculture Research. 46: 1–9. doi:10.1111/are.12224.
  14. ↑ Val, Adalberto L; Wood, Chris M; Wilson, Rod W; Gonzalez, Richard J; Patrick, Marjorie L; Bergman, Harold L (1998). "Responses of an Amazonian Teleost, the Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum), to Low pH in Extremely Soft Water". Physiological Zoology. 71 (6): 658–70. doi:10.1086/515977. hdl: 20.500.11919/2945 . PMID   9798253. S2CID   2337909.
  15. ↑ Sylvain, François-Étienne; Cheaib, Bachar; Correia, Tiago Gabriel; Llewellyn, Martin J; Fagundes, Daniel L; Val, Adalberto Luis; Derome, Nicolas (2016). "pH drop impacts differentially skin and gut microbiota of the Amazonian fish tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum". Scientific Reports. 6 (6): 32032. Bibcode:2016NatSR...632032S. doi:10.1038/srep32032. PMC   4989189 . PMID   27535789.
  16. 1 2 3 Lucas, Christine M. (September 2008). "Within Flood Season Variation in Fruit Consumption and Seed Dispersal by Two Characin Fishes of the Amazon". Biotropica. 40 (5): 581–589. Bibcode:2008Biotr..40..581L. doi: 10.1111/j.1744-7429.2008.00415.x . JSTOR   20492487. S2CID   85788776.
  17. ↑ Reinaldo Castro, Souza; Bacconi Campeche, Daniela Ferraz; Campos, R. M. L; Figueiredo, R. A. C. R; Melo, J. F. B (June 2014). "Frequência de alimentação para juvenis de tambaqui". Arquivo Brasileiro de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia. 66 (3): 927–932. doi: 10.1590/1678-41625557 .
  18. ↑ Cressey, Daniel (2011-03-23). "Fruit-feasting fish fertilize faraway forests". Nature News. Nature Publishing Group. doi:10.1038/news.2011.177.
  19. ↑ Yong, Ed (2011-03-22). "Vegetarian piranhas are the Amazon's champion gardeners". Discover Magazine blogs. Kalmbach Publishing. Archived from the original on December 7, 2022. Retrieved 2011-03-23.
  20. ↑ Anderson, J. T.; Nuttle, T.; Saldaña Rojas, J. S.; Pendergast, T. H.; Flecker, A. S. (2011-03-23). "Extremely long-distance seed dispersal by an overfished Amazonian frugivore". Proc. R. Soc. B . 278 (1710). The Royal Society: 3329–3335. doi:10.1098/rspb.2011.0155. PMC   3177626 . PMID   21429923.
  21. ↑ Anderson, Jill T.; Saldana Rojas, Joe; Flecker, Alexander S. (August 2009). "High-quality seed dispersal by fruit-eating fishes in Amazonian floodplain habitats". Oecologia. 161 (2): 279–290. Bibcode:2009Oecol.161..279A. doi:10.1007/s00442-009-1371-4. JSTOR   40310200. PMID   19466459. S2CID   1901361.
  22. ↑ Kochhann, Daiani; Jardim, Manoela M.; Valdez, Domingos; Fabiola, Xochilt; Adalberto, Luis (January 2015). "Biochemical and behavioral responses of the Amazonian fish Colossoma macropomum to crude oil: The effect of oil layer on water surface". Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 111: 32–41. Bibcode:2015EcoES.111...32K. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2014.09.016. PMID   25450912.
  23. ↑ Oeda Rodrigues, Ana Paula (2014). "NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF TAMBAQUI (Colossoma macropomum)". Boletim do Instituto de Pesca. 40 (1): 135–145.
  24. ↑ Aguiar, Jonas; Schneider, Horacio; Gomes, Fatima; Carneiro, Jeferson; Santos, Simoni; Rodrigues, Luis R; Sampaio, Iracilda (December 2013). "Genetic variation in native and farmed populations of Tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) in the Brazilian Amazon: regional discrepancies in farming systems". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 85 (4): 1439–1447. doi: 10.1590/0001-376520130007 . PMID   24141412.
  25. ↑ "Colossoma macropomum". Fisheries and Aquaculture Division. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. Retrieved 9 March 2023.
  26. ↑ Nico, L.; P. Fuller; and M. Neilson (22 October 2013). Colossoma macropomum. USGS Nonindigenous Aquatic Species Database, Gainesville, FL. Retrieved 13 March 2017.
  27. 1 2 SeriouslyFish: Colossoma macropomum. Retrieved 13 March 2017.

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