White chocolate

This article is about the confection. For other uses, see White chocolate (disambiguation).

White chocolate

Type	Chocolate
Place of origin	Switzerland
Main ingredients	Cocoa butter, sugar, milk solids
Ingredients generally used	Vanilla
Media: White chocolate

White chocolate is a form of chocolate made of cocoa butter, sugar and milk. Unlike milk and dark chocolate, it does not contain cocoa solids, which darken the chocolate. White chocolate has an ivory color, and can smell of biscuit, vanilla or caramel, although it can also easily pick up smells from the environment and become rancid with its relatively short shelf life. Like milk and dark chocolate, white chocolate is used by confectionery manufacturers to make chocolate bars and coat confectionery.

Of the three traditional types of chocolate, white chocolate is the newest. It was first sold commercially in tablet form by the Swiss company Nestlé in 1936, but in the United States, it took until the 1980s to become popular. During the 21st century, manufacturers began producing more premium white chocolate, and in the United Kingdom the traditionally children's product was marketed to adults for the first time. Around 2005, a variant called blond chocolate was invented, produced by slowly cooking white chocolate across multiple days. In 2022, white chocolate accounted for 10% of the US chocolate market. Among some consumers, it has remained controversial if white chocolate should be considered chocolate.

White chocolate is made in a five-step process. First, the ingredients are mixed to form a paste. Next, the paste is refined, reducing particle size to a powder. It is then agitated for several hours in a process known as conching, after which the product is further processed to ensure the product sold is standardized. Finally, the chocolate is tempered by heating, cooling and reheating the mass, improving the product's appearance, stability and snap.

History

See also: History of chocolate

1936 ad for Milkybar

When modern white chocolate was first created is unclear. ^[1] The Oxford English Dictionary gives the first use of the term as occurring in a December 1917 edition of Scientific American magazine, wherein the writer describes white chocolate as a product eaten by the Swiss Army, made entirely of cocoa butter and sugar. ^[2] It also mentions a rumor, printed in International Confectioner the previous December, of a white-colored chocolate being made out of Switzerland. ^[3] In 1936, the Swiss company Nestlé launched Nestlé Galak (known as Milkybar in the United Kingdom), the first commercial white chocolate tablet. Making white chocolate was said to be a way to use milk powder and cocoa butter, which were then produced in excess. ^{[4] [1]} According to Nestlé, white chocolate was originally a coating for a vitamin product they were making in conjunction with pharmaceutical group Roche. ^[5]

Upon its launch in the UK, white chocolate was sold under the names "white chocolate", "white milk chocolate" and "milk chocolate block". ^[6] The description of the product as "chocolate" was immediately challenged due to its lack of cocoa mass, and in Northumberland county companies agreed to not label the product as chocolate. ^[7] Production of Milkybar was suspended in the UK in 1940 due to shortages of ingredients caused by WW2; it would take until 1956 before production resumed. ^[8] White chocolate in Europe was long associated closely with children, said to be due to the lower caffeine content and milder flavor than dark chocolates. ^{[9] [10]} In 1961, Nestlé created the mascot for Milkybar: "The Milkybar Kid", a blond boy sporting spectacles and a cowboy suit. The mascot continued to be depicted by a child until 2010. ^[11]

In 1965, Elgorriaga  [ es ] manufactured the first white chocolates in Spain. Other large manufacturers soon followed suit, with one producing an almond variety. During the following decades, the chocolate was isolated to grocery stores, used sparingly by artisans to provide contrast to milk and dark chocolate products. ^[12] By the 1980s, the global white chocolate market was mostly contained to a niche premium market in Europe. ^[13] In Japan, white chocolate has been given as a gift on White Day since the late 1970s following the holiday's creation by chocolate companies. The holiday, celebrated a month after Valentine's Day, involves men giving white chocolate to women who had given them dark chocolate a month prior. ^{[14] [15]} Around the late 1980s, Nestlé, then global market leader for white chocolate, made a push to create a mass market for white chocolate in Japan. ^[13]

White chocolate has featured in savory dishes, as seen above in a pea tart topped with caviar and white chocolate

At the beginning of the 21st century, white chocolate use increased as artistic chocolate molding became more popular, particularly in works depicting Christmas and Easter subjects. ^[12] At this time in the United Kingdom, chocolate makers began marketing white chocolate to adults, with Cadbury releasing Cadbury Snowflake and Dream, and Nestlé releasing white chocolate versions of Aero and Kit Kat; ^[16] as of 2017 ^[update] , white chocolate was widely considered acceptable for adults to eat. ^[9] Chefs within the molecular gastronomy movement in the 2000s used white chocolate, creating white chocolate fizz ^[17] and pairing it with caviar based on the principles of food pairing. ^[18] Since 2012, the French chocolate manufacturer Valrhona has sold "blond chocolate", invented around 2005 after white chocolate was accidentally left in a bain-marie for several days. As of 2024 ^[update] , Valrhona was lobbying the French government to recognize it as a separate type of chocolate. ^[19] In France, white chocolate remains associated with children. ^[20]

In the United States

Although Hebert Candies says that they introduced white chocolate to America for the first time in 1956, ^[21] white chocolate did not gain popularity until the 1980s, after a white chocolate mousse served by chef Michel Fitoussi in 1977 New York City to much attention. ^[22] Imports rose from Europe, and the chocolate was considered trendy; it was marketed as European. ^[23] Pastry chefs utilized the product's plasticity to construct decorations for cakes. ^[24] White chocolate versions of desserts including truffles, cheesecakes, brownies and chocolate chip cookies were made, even as the mousse remained the most popular. ^[24] In desserts, it was often paired with berries to balance the richness of the chocolate. ^[25] For the first time, in 1984, white chocolate was made and mass-distributed in the United States when Nestlé released Alpine White, a white chocolate bar containing almonds, which they marketed to the "female indulgence" market. ^{[4] [26]} Growth was driven by perceptions of white chocolate as "lighter and more delicate" than other types of chocolate. ^[27] By the 1990s, however, white chocolate had become unpopular and disliked; a contemporary online survey featured opinions that white chocolate tasted like "candle wax" and was "for communist spies." ^[28] Nestlé discontinued Alpine White in 1993, and a year later The Hershey Company introduced Hershey's Cookies 'n' Creme to the US market, a white chocolate product embedded with cookie chunks. ^[29] Hershey's new launch and Nestlé's new White Crunch bar, however, failed to turn around sales. ^[28]

The market for premium white chocolate has grown in the 21st century. Above: white chocolate containing rose petals

As of 2001, much of the "white chocolate" sold in the United States was made of palm kernel oils or hydrogenated fats and called "compound coating". It was sold as "ivory", "blanc", or just wrapped in clear plastic bags. Consumers had difficulty distinguishing white chocolate made with and without cocoa butter. ^[28] The Food and Drug Administration forbade white chocolate being marketed as "chocolate" unless manufacturers held rare permits they had to be renew every fifteen months. ^{[30] [a]} In the early 90s, Hershey and the Chocolate Manufacturers Association (now part of the National Confectioners Association) began lobbying the FDA to regulate a standard identity for white chocolate. The agency struggled to establish what percentage of cocoa was appropriate, and whether to permit the addition of antioxidants. In 1997, the FDA released a proposal for a standard identity, ^[31] and in 2002, in response to a decade of lobbying, administrative burden of the permit system, and in order to make it easier to market US white chocolate internationally, the FDA regulated a standard of identity for white chocolate for the first time. ^{[32] [1] [31]} This was enforced from 2004 and required white chocolate to be made of at least 20% cocoa butter. ^[30] In the years that followed, as demand for cocoa butter sent the prices doubling between 2005 and 2015, some American chocolate makers switched to making higher-quality white chocolate. ^[1]

Manufacturing

Ingredients

Cocoa butter, broken into pieces

White chocolate does not contain cocoa solids, the primary non-fat constituent of cocoa liquor; these are replaced by milk solids. During manufacturing, the dark-colored solids of the cocoa bean are separated from its fatty content (cocoa butter), as with milk chocolate and dark chocolate. Unlike with other forms of chocolate, however, in white chocolate manufacturing no cocoa mass is added back, leaving cocoa butter as the only cocoa ingredient in white chocolate. ^[33] As pure pressed cocoa butter has a flavor that can be considered unpleasant in some applications, before it is used in white chocolate, it is partly deodorized. This involves steam distilling the cocoa butter under vacuum ^{[34] [35]} or by using solvents. ^[1] If cocoa butter were fully deodorized, it would lose all cocoa flavor; as a result, less deodorized cocoa butters are used in dark chocolates, while white chocolates use more deodorized cocoa butter. ^[35] Since being popularized by a Venezuelan chocolate maker, some craft chocolate makers have eschewed deodorizing cocoa butter in producing white chocolates. ^[1]

Beyond cocoa butter, white chocolate contains sugar, milk solids, ^[36] emulsifiers (generally soy lecithin or PGPR), ^[37] and flavors (such as vanilla). Manufacturers vary the milk solids used to create different effects. Some use yogurt powder as a milk powder, as the acidity masks the sweetness of the sugar. ^[36] Other manufacturers substitute milk powder for "white" chocolate crumb (a mixture of sugar, milk and cocoa butter dried simultaneously), ^[38] to give it a caramelized flavor, and others make white chocolate softer by using skimmed milk powder and milk fat instead of full cream milk powder. ^[39] The ratio between cocoa butter, sugar and milk fat impacts the quality, and higher-quality white-chocolate recipes require less sugar with more cocoa butter and milk fat. ^[40] In some chocolate, some cocoa butter is substituted for cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) and cocoa butter substitutes (CBSs). CBEs are fats with similar triglyceride structures, such as palm oil and shea butter, ^[41] while CBSs are fats with dissimilar triglyceride structures that are refined to have similar qualities of hardness, mouthfeel and flavor release. These include fully refined fats made from palm kernel and coconut oil. ^{[42] [43]}

Process

Tempering white chocolate

The basic process of making white chocolate involves mixing, refining, conching, standardizing and tempering. ^[44]

In the mixing phase, cocoa butter is combined with sugar, milk solids, emulsifiers and flavors. ^{[44] [45]} These ingredients are mixed until a rough paste is formed. ^[44] After the ingredients are mixed, the mass enters a refining machine. This carries the mass through large steel rollers set to varying widths, turning the mass into a dry powder. ^{[46] [44]} White chocolate is then transferred to a conching machine. ^[47] These machines mix and knead the mass, changing the flavor and texture. ^[48] White chocolate is conched between 40 and 50 °C (104–122 °F), the lowest temperature of the traditional types of chocolate; ^[49] conching at higher temperatures can give the chocolate undesirable flavors produced by the Maillard reaction. ^{[39] [50]} After conching, the viscosity and taste of the mixture is standardized by adding flavorings, emulsifiers or cocoa butter. This is necessary, given the use of automatic molding and enrobing equipment. ^{[47] [48]}

In the final step of production, the chocolate is tempered. While waiting to temper, the chocolate is kept in liquid-chocolate storage. ^{[51] [52]} Storing white chocolate for this time is particularly difficult compared to other types of chocolate, as it tends to thicken and caramelize at higher temperatures. ^[53] To prevent this, the chocolate is constantly stirred while being held between 38 and 40 °C (100–104 °F). ^{[51] [52]} Before tempering, chocolate is heated to ensure all the cocoa butter that has crystallized has melted. ^[54] In white chocolate, this occurs at about 40–45 °C (104–113 °F), lower than in milk and dark chocolates. ^{[54] [53]} During tempering, chocolate is cooled to the point where the cocoa butter can begin to crystallize, and then heated to ensure that of the various crystal structures, only the most stable remain. For white chocolate, the temperatures the chocolate is cooled to and then heated to are lower than those needed for other chocolates; up to 4 °C lower when compared to dark chocolate. ^[55] High milk fat contents in white and milk chocolates reduces the temperature at which they solidify. As a result, they require longer cooling. ^[56] The softness and viscosity of white chocolate makes it the most challenging chocolate for manufacturers to work with. ^{[57] [58]}

Regulations

Regulations govern what may be marketed as white chocolate: since 2000 in the European Union, white chocolate must be (by mass) at least 20% cocoa butter and 14% total milk solids, of which enough milk fat must be contained to make up 3.5%. ^[59] Up to 5% of white chocolate's mass can be vegetable fats other than cocoa butter. ^[60] In January 2022, the European Food Safety Authority banned the food coloring agent E171 (titanium dioxide), which had been used as a common whitener in some white chocolate products. ^{[61] [62]}

Since 2004 in the United States, the Code of Federal Regulations defines white chocolate as containing "not less than 20 percent by weight of cacao fat", "not less than 3.5 percent by weight of milkfat and not less than 14 percent by weight of total milk solids", and "not more than 55 percent by weight of a nutritive carbohydrate sweetener" (generally sucrose). ^{[63] [64]} Acceptable dairy elements when manufacturing white chocolate in the United States include evaporated milk, skim milk, buttermilk, and malted milk. White chocolate products may not contain artificial coloring agents. ^[63] Compared to milk and dark chocolates, white chocolate is permitted to contain an unusually high amount of emulsifiers; up to 1.5% of the formula, 50% more than what is permitted for other chocolates. It is also the only chocolate to which antioxidants can be added, to prevent it going rancid. ^[37] Unlike in the EU, products in the US containing vegetable fats other than cocoa butter cannot be labelled "chocolate". ^[60]

Characteristics

Chocolate bar made by Japanese chocolate maker Meiji Co. It is wrapped in a metallized foil to protect it from light.

White chocolate has an ivory color and can smell of biscuit, vanilla or caramel, although it can easily pick up undesirable environmental smells, leading to aromas of rancidity or cheese. ^[65] White chocolate made from nondeodorized cocoa butter retains the aroma of chocolate, but has an unappealing taste to most consumers. ^{[b] [66] [67]} Cocoa butter can contribute a yellow color to white chocolate, which some consumers consider undesirable. ^[68] Milk fats in white chocolate carry flavors, serve as flavor precursors, and provide flavor, some of these produced throughout the production process. ^[69] Undesirable flavors in white chocolate include metal and paper or cardboard; the latter flavors can arise from exposure to oxygen. ^{[65] [70]} Compared to chocolates containing cocoa solids, white chocolate does not make consumers as thirsty. ^[71] There is some evidence that white chocolate does not eliminate food cravings for chocolate. ^[72]

Due to the absence of cocoa antioxidants, which act as natural preservatives and are predominantly found in dark chocolate, white chocolate typically has a shorter shelf life compared to both milk and dark chocolate, ^{[73] [69]} approximately six to twelve months. ^{[74] [75]} The presence of milk fats in white chocolate also means white chocolate cannot be packed in a transparent wrapper, as milk fat is delicate, and will decompose faster if exposed to light. ^{[73] [69]} Instead, metallized films are used. ^[76]

Nutrition

White chocolate

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	2,250 kJ (540 kcal)
Carbohydrates	59.2
Sugars	59
Dietary fiber	0.2 g
Fat	32.1
Protein	5.87
Vitamins and minerals Vitamins Quantity %DV† Vitamin A equiv. 1% 9 μg Vitamin A 30 IU Thiamine (B1) 5% 0.063 mg Riboflavin (B2) 22% 0.282 mg Niacin (B3) 5% 0.745 mg Pantothenic acid (B5) 12% 0.608 mg Vitamin B6 3% 0.056 mg Folate (B9) 2% 7 μg Vitamin E 6% 0.96 mg Vitamin K 8% 9.1 μg Minerals Quantity %DV† Calcium 15% 199 mg Copper 7% 0.06 mg Iron 1% 0.24 mg Magnesium 3% 12 mg Manganese 0% 0.008 mg Phosphorus 14% 176 mg Potassium 10% 286 mg Selenium 8% 4.5 μg Sodium 4% 90 mg Zinc 7% 0.74 mg
Other constituents	Quantity
Water	1.3 g
Caffeine	0 mg
Theobromine	0 mg
Link to USDA Database entry
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [77] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [78]

White chocolate is 59% carbohydrates, 32% fat, 6% protein, and 1% water (see table). In a reference amount of 100 grams (3.5 oz), white chocolate supplies 2,250 kJ (540 kcal) of food energy, is a rich source (22% of the Daily Value, DV) of riboflavin, and a moderate source (10–15% DV) of pantothenic acid, calcium, phosphorus, and potassium (table). White chocolate contains only trace amounts of the stimulants theobromine and caffeine, as these are present in the cocoa mass but not the cocoa butter. ^[33]

Uses

White chocolate is used in a range of confections, including chocolate bars, tablets and panned chocolate products, such as panned nuts. These are produced using enrobing, molding and panning respectively. ^[79] Other applications includes feves, pistoles, chocolate chips, ^[80] rochers and gianduja. ^[81] White chocolate has a more muted taste than other chocolates and as a result it is more frequently combined with other flavors in applications. ^[10]

White chocolate, supplemented with fat-soluble colors and flavors, is often used to coat candies and cakes in the United States. ^[82] Beyond sales directly to customer, white compound chocolate is also sold industrially to be used by bakeries, confectioners and for making cookies and biscuits. Some cooks caramelize white chocolate, cooking it at a low temperature over a long time, increasing a more complexity of flavor and introducing nutty notes. ^[80] It is sometimes used as an ingredient in ice cream and ganache ^[83] and added to coffee when making white chocolate mocha. ^[84] In Germany, white chocolate is used to garnish an ice cream dish called spaghetti ice cream; the shaved chocolate represents parmesan. ^[85]

Variations

Sugar-free and reduced sugar white chocolate substitute sucrose for maltitol, a sugar alcohol, sometimes in combination with a fiber blend and stevia. ^[86] These chocolates also replace milk ingredients with lactose-free variants. ^[87] Other sugar-free and reduced sugar white chocolate products use sorbitol or fructose instead. ^[88] Vegan white chocolates have been sold after substituting milk powder for rice flour. ^[89] Another variation, blond chocolate is made by slowly heating white chocolate, triggering Maillard reactions and creating a chocolate with light caramel flavor. ^[19] Substituting cocoa butter entirely for vegetable fat produces compound chocolate that is sold as 'white chocolate coating'. This is more common in the US than Europe ^[90] and has a pure white appearance. ^[75] White chocolate products are often flavored with green tea, particularly matcha, ^[91] strawberry, coffee and nuts including pistachio and almond. ^[10]

White chocolates with various embedded additions, including grape, hazelnut and coffee

White chocolates made by craft chocolate makers exhibit large differences from mass-produced white chocolates. Some craft chocolate makers substitute ingredients typically used in white chocolate, such as dairy milk fats for goat milk, and deodorized cocoa butter for a non-deodorized product. Others add unusual ingredients, creating white chocolates with flavors including Thai shrimp curry, rosemary and sea salt, and vegetables such as kale and mustard. ^[1] As of 2019, many bean-to-bar chocolate manufacturers in France and Spain produce white chocolate, in addition to the more typical milk and dark types. ^[12]

Market

According to the National Confectioners Association, white chocolate accounted for around ten percent of the overall US chocolate market in 2022. ^[92] As of 2006 ^[update] , most white chocolate in the US was imported from Europe, with the chocolate makers Guittard, Baker's and Askinosie responsible for domestic production. ^[93]

Countries in the European Union exported white chocolate worth € 311,535,644 to countries outside the EU in 2023. Belgium dominated these exports, accounting for almost half of all trade. ^[94] Domestically within Belgium, white chocolate is often used for decorative purposes, mixed with dark and milk chocolate. ^[16] Germany was the second largest exporter by value, accounting for around 20%, ^{[94] [c]} while € 66,412,098 worth of white chocolate were imported into the EU that year. ^[95] In the UK white chocolate market, Milkybar has held a dominant position for many years, holding 80% of the UK's then £ 41,000,000 white chocolate market in 1992, ^[96] and 60% of the £ 70,000,000 market in 2010. ^[97] As of 2020, Milkybar was the most popular white chocolate in the UK and Ireland. ^[98]

According to market research company Mintel, as of 2019 white chocolate was the second most popular type of chocolate in Brazil. ^[89] In Japan, craft white chocolate is unusually popular. ^[99] Several international established brands produce white chocolate for the premium white chocolate market, including the Italian Ferrero, the Belgian Godiva and the American artisan chocolate makers Guittard and Ghirardelli. ^[89] Manufacturers also sell white chocolate varieties of established chocolate products, including Twix, Kit Kat and M&M's. ^[89]

In a 2024 survey by Mintel of US consumers, preference for white chocolate had a sharp generational divide, with millennials more than twice as likely than baby boomers to purchase the product. ^[100] The same generational divide was observed in a 2023 Mintel survey of UK consumers: white chocolates were most favored by consumers between 16–24 and disfavored by those over 65. ^[101]

Divisiveness

The flavor and texture of white chocolate is divisive; enjoyed by some for its "creamy" and "unctuous" texture, it is disliked by others who find the flavor cloying. ^{[25] [1]} The relative popularity of white chocolate when compared to other types of chocolate has been attributed to a lower aromatic compound content than milk and dark chocolates. ^[102] For fans of white chocolate, perceptions of its flavor and color as "unusual" contribute to its appeal. ^[103]

Among some members of the public and some chocolatiers and trade groups, it is controversial whether white chocolate should "really" be considered chocolate. ^{[104] [10]} This controversy stems from multiple factors: the presence of additives such as palm oil in some product, high levels of sweeteners, and an absence of cocoa solids. Proponents, in defense of the categorization, highlight the confectionery's base of cocoa beans that it shares with other products considered chocolate. Craft white chocolate makers are conditional in accepting white chocolate to be "real" chocolate, excluding products containing vegetable fats. Food writer David Lebovitz has criticised the controversy, analogizing critics to someone disputing the terms hamburger and milkshake because the products today are not made from ham nor shaken. ^[1]

See also

• List of chocolate bar brands

Notes

1. The Hershey Company was one of the few companies that held this permit and thus could market confectionery such as Cookies 'n' Cream bars as containing white chocolate. ^[30]
2. According to Maricel Presilla, this chocolates tastes like higher-quality milk chocolate. ^[66]
3. Belgium and Germany exported €141,140,281 and €60,268,548 worth of white chocolate outside the EU respectively

References

1. Sethi (2017).
2. Lodian, L. (1 December 1917). "The inner men of armies: Some of the foods of high concentration on which battles are fought". Scientific American. 117: 409, 429.
3. white chocolate — OED 2024 , Meaning & use harvnb error: no target: CITEREFwhite_chocolate_—_OED2024 (help)
4. This year's 'hot' chocolate (1990).
5. Marchetti (2019).
6. Seiler (1937), p. 90.
7. Fenton (1937), pp. 24–25.
8. The Milkybar® Story
9. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 492.
10. Dizik (2013).
11. Hayward (2013), pp. 525–526.
12. Duhart (2019), p. 205.
13. Yip & Coundouriotis (1991), p. 11.
14. Creighton (1993), p. 6.
15. Hori (1998), p. 50.
16. Dowling (2002).
17. Lovegren (2013), Historical Overview: From the 1960s to the Present: The 2000s..
18. Spence, Wang & Youssef (2017), p. 7.
19. Rousseau (2024).
20. Perusset (2022), p. 7.
21. Trieger Kurland (2017).
22. Lovegren (2013), Historical Overview: From the 1960s to the Present: The 1980s..
23. Kummer (1988).
24. Lovegren (2005), p. 394.
25. Lovegren (2005), p. 395.
26. Hyde, Ellert & Killing (1991), p. 13.
27. Nichter & Nichter (1991), p. 273.
28. Murray (2001).
29. Zellner et al. 1999 , p. 67
30. Gersema (2003).
31. FDA Proposes Standard of Identity for White Chocolate (1997), pp. 13–14.
32. Thomas (2017), p. 671.
33. Zoumas, Kreisler & Martin (1980), pp. 314–316.
34. Beckett (2019), p. 53.
35. Kamphuis & Fowler (2017), p. 64.
36. Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 131.
37. Hartel, von Elbe & Hofberger (2018), p. 423.
38. Wells (2017), p. 136.
39. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 497.
40. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 498.
41. Talbot (2017), pp. 162, 165.
42. Talbot (2017), p. 176.
43. Talbot (2017), p. 177.
44. Hofberger & Tanabe (2007), p. 682.
45. Jewett (2017), p. 474.
46. Presilla (2001), p. 64.
47. Hofberger & Tanabe (2007), p. 683.
48. Stauffer (2017), p. 545.
49. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 495.
50. Beckett, Paggios & Roberts (2017), p. 244.
51. Beckett (2019), pp. 95–96.
52. Walker (2017), p. 308.
53. Hartel, von Elbe & Hofberger (2018), p. 442.
54. Jewett (2017), p. 475.
55. Jewett (2017), pp. 474–475.
56. Gray & Máñez-Cortell (2017), p. 396.
57. Hartel, von Elbe & Hofberger (2018), p. 503.
58. Marsh & Rummel (2024), p. 208.
59. "Directive 2000/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 June 2000 relating to cocoa and chocolate products intended for human consumption". 23 June 2000. Retrieved 27 October 2010.
60. Nieburg (2016).
61. Goodbye E171 2022
62. Boffey (2021).
63. "Title 21, Chapter I, Subchapter B, Part 163.124 (white chocolate) of the US Code of Federal Regulations". United States Government Publishing Office. 5 May 2021. Retrieved 7 May 2021.
64. Krüger (2017), p. 72.
65. Bau (2006), p. 38.
66. Presilla (2001), p. 183.
67. Beckett (2003), p. 140.
68. Kamphuis & Fowler (2017), p. 65.
69. Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 108.
70. Skytte & Kaylegian (2017), p. 109.
71. Swiss chocolate makers saved by exports 2004
72. Splane, Rowland & Mitra (2025), pp. 150–151.
73. Beckett (2019), p. 19.
74. Greweling (2013), p. 34.
75. Lebovitz (2004), p. 35.
76. Jones (2017), p. 640.
77. United States Food and Drug Administration (2024). "Daily Value on the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels". FDA. Archived from the original on 27 March 2024. Retrieved 28 March 2024.
78. National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine; Health and Medicine Division; Food and Nutrition Board; Committee to Review the Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium (2019). "Chapter 4: Potassium: Dietary Reference Intakes for Adequacy". In Oria, Maria; Harrison, Meghan; Stallings, Virginia A. (eds.). Dietary Reference Intakes for Sodium and Potassium. The National Academies Collection: Reports funded by National Institutes of Health. Washington, DC: National Academies Press (US). pp. 120–121. doi:10.17226/25353. ISBN   978-0-309-48834-1. PMID   30844154 . Retrieved 5 December 2024.
79. Vercet (2003), p. 371.
80. Falkowitz (2019).
81. Greweling (2013), pp. 405, 409.
82. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 508.
83. CIA 2016 , pp. 557, 908
84. Ferdman & Yanofsky (2014).
85. Audretsch, Lehmann & Wirsching (2017), p. 50.
86. Beckett (2019), p. 117.
87. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 506.
88. Wohlmuth (2017), p. 507.
89. Sherred (2019).
90. CIA 2016 , p. 1095
91. Pardek & Bohne (2024), pp. 99, 103–105.
92. Candy & Snack Today 2022
93. Lebovitz (2006).
94. "EU trade since 1988 by HS2-4-6 and CN8 [ds-045409__custom_15384806] Exports". Eurostat . Retrieved 17 February 2025.
95. "EU trade since 1988 by HS2-4-6 and CN8 [ds-045409__custom_15384806] Imports". Eurostat . Retrieved 17 February 2025.
96. Plant (1992), p. 14.
97. Baker (2010).
98. Twilley (2020).
99. Cadby & Araki (2022), p. 4.
100. Olsen (2024).
101. Caines (2023).
102. Aydın, Kian-Pour & Toker (2021), p. 3182.
103. Zarantonello & Luomala (2011), p. 63.
104. Leissle (2018), p. 55.

Sources

Books

• Audretsch, David B; Lehmann, Erik E; Wirsching, Katharine (26 May 2017). "Female immigrant entrepreneurship in Germany". In Link, Albert N (ed.). Gender and Entrepreneurial Activity. Business 2017. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing. doi:10.4337/9781785364747.00007. ISBN   978-1-78536-473-0.
• Bau, Frédéric [in French] (2006). Chocolate Fusion: Chocolate in Cuisine (2nd English ed.). Barcelona: Montagud Editores. ISBN   978-84-7212-117-1.
• Beckett, Stephen T (2019). The Science of Chocolate (3rd ed.). Croydon, United Kingdom: Royal Society of Chemistry. ISBN   978-1-78801-235-5.
• Beckett, Stephen T; Paggios, Konstantinos; Roberts, Ian (2017). "Conching". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-118-78014-5.
• Duhart, Frédéric (2019). "Les goûts du chocolat au Pays Basque. D'hier à aujourd'hui.". In Marcilhac, Vincent; Tibère, Valentine (eds.). Les Goûts du chocolat dans le monde[Tastes of chocolate around the world] (in French). Paris: L'Harmattan. ISBN   978-2-34318-423-4.
• Gray, Michael P; Máñez-Cortell, Ángel (2017). "Moulding, enrobing and cooling chocolate products". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Greweling, Peter P (2013). Chocolates & Confections: Formula, Theory, and Technique for the Artisan Confectioner (2nd ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN   978-0-470-42441-4.
• Hartel, Richard W; von Elbe, Joachim H; Hofberger, Randy (2018). Confectionery Science and Technology. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Publishing. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-61742-8. ISBN   978-3-31961-742-8.
• Hofberger, Randall; Tanabe, Nina Ann (2007). "Chocolate and Cocoa". In Hui, Y H (ed.). Handbook of Food Products Manufacturing. New Jersey: Wiley. ISBN   978-0-470-04964-8.
• Hori, G Victor Sögen (1998). "Japanese Zen in America: Americanizing the Face in the Mirror". The Faces of Buddhism in America. University of California Press. doi:10.1525/9780520920651-005. ISBN   978-0-52092-065-1.
• Jewett, Sophie (2017). "Artisan chocolate making". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Jones, Carl E (2017). "Packaging". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Kamphuis, Henri J; Fowler, Mark S (2017). "Production of cocoa mass, cocoa butter and cocoa powder". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Krüger, Christof (2017). "Sugar and bulk sweeteners". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Lebovitz, David (2004). The Great Book of Chocolate. Berkley, California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN   978-1-60774-239-5.
• Leissle, Kristy (2018). Cocoa . Cambridge: Polity. ISBN   978-1-50951-320-8.
• Lovegren, Sylvia (2005). Fashionable Foods: Seven Decades of Food Fads (University of Chicago Press  ed.). University of Chicago Press. p. 394. ISBN   0-226-49407-1.
• Lovegren, Sylvia (2013). "Historical Overview". In Smith, Andrew F (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19973-922-6.
• Marsh, Shona; Rummel, Florian (2024). "Rheometry and Rheological Characterisation". In Rosenthal, Andrew J; Chen, Jianshe (eds.). Food Texturology: Measurement and Perception of Food Textural Properties (2nd ed.). Cham, Switzerland: Springer Publishing. ISBN   978-3-03141-900-3.
• Pardek, Carina; Bohne, Hartwig [in German] (2024). "Hospitality in harmony: Mergers of tea and chocolate". In Bohne, Hartwig (ed.). Tea Cultures of Europe: Heritage and Hospitality. Berlin: De Gruyter. doi:10.1515/9783110758573-009. ISBN   978-3-11075-857-3.
• Presilla, Maricel E. (2001). The New Taste of Chocolate: A Cultural and Natural History of Cacao with Recipes (1st ed.). California: Ten Speed Press. ISBN   1-58008-143-6.
• Skytte, Ulla P; Kaylegian, Kerry E (2017). "Ingredients from milk". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Splane, Emily Crews; Rowland, Neil E; Mitra, Anaya (2025). Psychology of Eating: From Biology to Culture to Policy (3rd ed.). New York: Taylor & Francis. ISBN   978-1-032-62138-8.
• Stauffer, Marlene B (2017). "Quality control and shelf life". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Talbot, Geoff (2017). "Properties of cocoa butter and vegetable fats". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• The Culinary Institute of America (2016). Baking and Pastry: Mastering the Art and Craft (3rd ed.). New Jersey: Wiley. ISBN   978-0-47092-865-3.
• Thomas, Jonathan (2017). "The global chocolate confectionery market". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Walker, John H (2017). "Bulk chocolate handling". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Wells, Martin A (2017). "Chocolate crumb". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.
• Wohlmuth, Edward G (2017). "Recipes". In Beckett, Stephen T; Fowler, Mark S; Ziegler, Gregory R (eds.). Beckett's Industrial Chocolate Manufacture and Use (5th ed.). West Sussex, UK: Wiley. ISBN   978-1-11878-014-5.

Journal articles

• Aydın, Nurcanan; Kian-Pour, Nasim; Toker, Omer Said (2021). "Caramelized white chocolate: efects of production process on quality parameters". Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 15 (4): 3182–3194. doi:10.1007/s11694-021-00890-1.
• Beckett, Stephen T (August 2003). "Is the taste of British milk chocolate different?". International Journal of Dairy Technology. 56 (3). doi:10.1046/j.1471-0307.2003.00099.x.
• Cadby, Jeana; Araki, Tetsuya (March 2022). "The recent rise of craft chocolate in Japan: A 2019 snapshot". Journal of Agriculture and Food Research. 7. 100273. doi: 10.1016/j.jafr.2022.100273 .
• Creighton, Millie R (Winter 1993). "'Sweet love' and women's place: Valentine's Day, Japan style". The Journal of Popular Culture . 27 (3). doi:10.1111/j.0022-3840.1993.00001.x. ProQuest   1297339767 – via ProQuest.
• "FDA Proposes Standard of Identity for White Chocolate". Inside Washington's FDA Week. 3 (15). 11 April 1997. JSTOR   26676517.
• Fenton, James (March 1937). "The Misleading and Deceptive Labelling of Food". British Food Journal. 39 (3). doi:10.1108/eb011304.
• Hayward, Keith (2013). "'Life Stage Dissolution' in Anglo-American Advertising and Popular Culture: Kidults, Lil' Britneys and Middle Youths". The Sociological Review . 61 (3). doi:10.1111/1467-954X.12032.
• Hyde, Dana; Ellert, James; Killing, J Peter (March 1991). "The Nestlé takeover of rowntree: A case study". European Management Journal. 9 (1). doi:10.1016/0263-2373(91)90044-Q.
• Nichter, Mark; Nichter, Mimi (1991). "Hype and Weight". Medical Anthropology . 13 (3). doi:10.1080/01459740.1991.9966051. PMID   1961105.
• Perusset, Alain (2022). "Éléments de sémiotique catégorielle: Théorie, méthode, schémas et pratique" [Elements of categorial semiotic: Theory, method, diagrams and practice]. Actes Sémiotiques (in French). 126. doi:10.25965/as.7443. Archived from the original on 26 November 2022. Retrieved 20 February 2025.
• Seiler, H E (September 1937). "Diet and Nutrition: A Survey of Recent Work". The British Food Journal. 39 (9). doi:10.1108/eb011310.
• Spence, Charles; Wang, Qian Janice; Youssef, Jozef (2017). "Pairing flavours and the temporal order of tasting". Flavour. 6 (4). doi: 10.1186/s13411-017-0053-0 .
• Vercet, Antonio (June 2003). "Browning of white chocolate during storage". Food Chemistry . 81 (3). doi:10.1016/S0308-8146(02)00452-1.
• Yip, George S; Coundouriotis, George A (1991). "Diagnosing global strategy potential: The World Chocolate Confectionery Industry". Planning Review. 19 (1). doi:10.1108/eb054314.
• Zarantonello, Lia; Luomala, Harri T (18 January 2011). "Dear Mr Chocolate: Constructing a typology of contextualized chocolate consumption experiences through qualitative diary research". Qualitative Market Research . 14 (1). doi:10.1108/13522751111099328.
• Zellner, Debra A; Garriga-Trillo, Ana; Rohm, E; Centeno, S; Parker, S (August 1999). "Food Liking and Craving: A Cross-cultural Approach". Appetite . 33 (1). doi:10.1006/appe.1999.0234. PMID   10447980.
• Zoumas, Barry; Kreisler, Wesley; Martin, Robert (1980). "Theobromine and Caffeine Content of Chocolate Products". Journal of Food Science . 45 (2). doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1980.tb02603.x.

News and magazine articles

• Baker, Rosie (2 August 2010). "Nestlé targets adults with Milkybar range". Marketing Week . Archived from the original on 22 January 2025. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
• Boffey, Daniel (7 May 2021). "E171: EU watchdog says food colouring widely used in UK is unsafe". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 25 November 2024. Retrieved 25 September 2024.
• Dizik, Alina (26 December 2013). "White Chocolate, a Blank Slate for Flavor, Wins Converts" . The Wall Street Journal . Archived from the original on 16 February 2025. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
• Ferdman, Robert A; Yanofsky, David (4 April 2014). "What people order at Starbucks around the United States". Quartz . Archived from the original on 21 January 2025. Retrieved 9 March 2025.
• Gersema, Emily (2 February 2003). "New FDA standard won't allow fudging on white chocolate". Orlando Sentinel . ProQuest   279814820.
• Kummer, Corby (21 December 1988). "America Is Going Sweet on White Chocolate". The New York Times . Archived from the original on 5 July 2018. Retrieved 22 September 2024.
• Dowling, Tim (8 March 2002). "White is the new brown". The Guardian . Archived from the original on 25 September 2024. Retrieved 4 October 2024.
• "Goodbye E171: The EU bans titanium dioxide as a food additive". European Commission . 18 January 2022. Archived from the original on 4 February 2025. Retrieved 25 September 2024.
• Marchetti, Silvia (9 November 2019). "How white chocolate evolved from a coating for kids' medicine into a sweet, creamy treat". South China Morning Post . Archived from the original on 23 October 2022. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
• Murray, Matt (13 April 2001). "It Gets Mixed Reviews, But White Chocolate Works in Easter Bunnies --- Trouble Is, Gourmets Disdain It, And Some of It Is Fake; That Waxy Crisco Flavor". The Wall Street Journal . ProQuest   398805520.
• Nieburg, Oliver (10 October 2016). "Vegetable fats in chocolate threaten artisans, says MEP". Confectionery News. Archived from the original on 8 November 2024. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
• Plant, Fiona (20 March 1992). "A sweet for Milky Bar adults". Campaign . Gale   A12105638.
• Rousseau, Daphné (28 March 2024). "Blond vs pink: French-Swiss battle for 'fourth' chocolate". Agence France-Presse . Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 28 September 2024.
• Sethi, Simran [in Punjabi] (27 November 2017). "For those who think white chocolate isn't 'real' chocolate, have we got bars for you". The Washington Post . Archived from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 26 March 2023.
• Sherred, Kristine (17 May 2019). "White chocolate market poised to grow by $1.8bn in next five years". Confectionery News. Archived from the original on 20 February 2025. Retrieved 7 November 2024.
• "Swiss chocolate makers saved by exports". Confectionery News. 10 February 2004. Archived from the original on 20 February 2025. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
• "This year's 'hot' chocolate turns out to be white". St. Petersburg Times . 3 May 1990. p. 17D. ProQuest   262746350.
• Trieger Kurland, Ann (27 June 2017). "Hebert Candies marks 100 years of yum". The Boston Globe . Archived from the original on 6 December 2017. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
• Twilley, Nicola (21 September 2020). "The Race to Redesign Sugar". The New Yorker . Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. Retrieved 25 September 2024.

Other

• Caines, Richard (30 September 2023). Chocolate Confectionery – UK – 2023 (Report). Mintel.
• Falkowitz, Max (4 April 2019). "The Best White Chocolate, Dessert's Delicious Underdog". Serious Eats . Archived from the original on 13 February 2025. Retrieved 16 February 2025.
• Lebovitz, David (5 February 2006). "What is White Chocolate?". david lebovitz. Archived from the original on 17 September 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2025.
• "The Milkybar® Story". milkybar.co.uk. Archived from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 31 October 2024.
• "white chocolate" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/OED/6380903128 . Retrieved 14 February 2025.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
• Olsen, Kelsey (18 June 2024). Chocolate Confectionery – US – 2024 (Report). Mintel.
• "White Chocolate: Consumers Take Notice". Candy & Snack Today . 6 October 2022. Archived from the original on 4 December 2024. Retrieved 17 February 2025.