0s

Last updated
Cenotaph of a centurion who died in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9). Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history. Epitaph des Marcus Caelius.JPG
Cenotaph of a centurion who died in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest (AD 9). Teutoburg Forest is commonly seen as one of the most important defeats in Roman history, bringing the triumphant period of expansion under Augustus to an abrupt end. The outcome of this battle dissuaded the Romans from their ambition of conquering Germania, and is thus considered one of the most important events in European history.

The 0s began on January 1, AD 1 and ended on December 31, AD 9, covering the first nine years of the Common Era. It is one of two "0-to-9" decade-like timespans that contain nine years, along with the 0s BC.

Contents

In Europe, the 0s saw the continuation of conflict between the Roman Empire and Germanic tribes in the Early Imperial campaigns in Germania. Vinicius, Tiberius and Varus led Roman forces in multiple punitive campaigns, before sustaining a major defeat at the hands of Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. Concurrently, the Roman Empire fought the Bellum Batonianum against a rebelling alliance of native peoples led by Bato the Daesitiate in Illyricum, which was suppressed in AD 9. A conflict also took place in Korea, where Daeso, King of Dongbuyeo invaded Goguryeo with a 50,000-man army in AD 6. He was forced to retreat when heavy snow began to fall, stopping the conflict until the next decade. In China, the last ruler of the Chinese Western Han dynasty (Ruzi Ying) was deposed, allowing Wang Mang to establish the Xin dynasty.

Literary works from the 0s include works from the ancient Roman poet Ovid; the Ars Amatoria , an instructional elegy series in three books, Metamorphoses, a poem which chronicles the history of the world from its creation to the deification of Julius Caesar within a loose mythico-historical framework, and Ibis, a curse poem written during his years in exile across the Black Sea for an offense against Augustus. Nicolaus of Damascus wrote the 15-volume History of the World.

Estimates for the world population by AD 1 range from 150 to 300 million. A census was concluded in China in AD 2: final numbers showed a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history. Dionysius Exiguus assigned Jesus's birth date in AD 1, in his anno Domini era according to at least one scholar. However, most scholars think Dionysius placed the birth of Jesus in the previous year, 1 BC. Furthermore, most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, placing the event several years earlier (see Chronology of Jesus).

Politics and wars

Map of the world in 1 AD World in 1 CE.png
Map of the world in 1 AD

Heads of state

PolityAD 1AD 2AD 3AD 4AD 5AD 6AD 7AD 8AD 9
Roman Empire Augustus
Chinese empire Ping Ruzi Ying Wang Mang
Parthian Empire [2] Phraates IV Phraates V and Musa (none) Orodes III (none) Vonones I
Dacia Comosicus
Thracian kingdom Rhoemetalces I
Nabataean Kingdom Aretas IV and Chuldu

Wars

StartFinishName of ConflictDescription
6 AD9 AD Bellum Batonianum
12 BCAD 16 Early imperial campaigns in Germania By AD 1, the Roman Empire had been expanding its territories and exerting influence throughout Europe, including regions bordering the Rhine River. The Romans sought to consolidate their control over Germanic territories east of the Rhine and integrate them into the empire. Between 2 BC and AD 4, Vinicius commanded five legions in Germany, successfully leading them in the "vast war" against Germanic tribes. He was awarded the ornamenta triumphalia upon his return to Rome. In AD 4, Tiberius took command and waged campaigns in northern Germany, conquering several tribes and establishing alliances. The Cherusci tribe, including the influential Arminius, became friends with Rome. Tiberius built a winter base on the Lippe to monitor the Cherusci. By AD 6, most German tribes were pacified, and Rome planned an attack on the Marcomanni but made peace instead. Varus replaced Tiberius and imposed civic changes, but Arminius incited a revolt. In AD 9, Varus fell into an ambush by Arminius, suffering a devastating defeat as Roman forces were surrounded and overwhelmed. Varus took his own life, while a few survivors managed to return to Roman quarters.
6 AD21 AD Goguryeo-Dongbuyeo Wars

Events

This section is transcluded from AD 1. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
Asia

By topic

Religion
  • Birth of Jesus, as assigned by Dionysius Exiguus in his anno Domini era according to at least one scholar. [6] [7] However, most scholars think that Dionysius placed the birth of Jesus in the previous year, 1 BC. [6] [7] Furthermore, most modern scholars do not consider Dionysius' calculations authoritative, placing the event several years earlier (see Chronology of Jesus). [8]
This section is transcluded from AD 2. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
Africa
  • Juba II of Mauretania joins Gaius Caesar in Armenia as a military advisor. It is during this period that he meets Glaphyra, a Cappadocian princess and the former wife of Alexandros of Judea, a brother of Herod Archelaus, ethnarch of Judea, and becomes enamoured with her. [11]
China
  • Wang Mang begins a program of personal aggrandizement, restoring marquess titles to past imperial princes and introducing a pension system for retired officials. Restrictions are placed on the Emperor's mother, Consort Wei and members of the Wei Clan. [10]
  • The first census is concluded in China after having begun the year before: final numbers show a population of nearly 60 million (59,594,978 people in slightly more than 12 million households). The census is one of the most accurate surveys in Chinese history. [10]
This section is transcluded from AD 3. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
  • The rule of Emperor Augustus is renewed for a ten-year period. [12]
China
  • Wang Mang foils a plot by his son, Wang Yu, his brother-in-law, Lu Kuan, and the Wei clan to oust him from the regent's position. Wang Yu and Lu Kuan are killed in the purge that follows. [13]
This section is transcluded from AD 4. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
Middle East
Korea
China

By topic

Arts and sciences
This section is transcluded from AD 5. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
This section is transcluded from AD 6. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
China
  • January – Some Chinese fear for the life of the young, ailing Emperor Ping Di as the planet Mars disappears behind the moon this month. [27]
  • February 3 – The boy emperor, Ping Di, dies of unexpected causes at age 14; Wang Mang alone selects the new emperor, Ruzi Ying, age 2, [27] starting the Jushe era of the Han dynasty.
  • Candidates for government office must take civil-service examinations.
  • The imperial Liu clan suspects the intentions of Wang Mang and foment agrarian rebellions during the course of Ruzi Ying's reign. The first of these is led by Liu Chong, Marquess of Ang-Zong (a/k/a Marquis of An-chung), with a small force starting in May or June. [27]
This section is transcluded from AD 7. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
China
  • Zhai Yi, Governor of the Commandery of Dong (modern Puyang, Henan) declares Liu Zin, Marquess of Yang Xiang (modern Tai'an, Shandong), emperor. This proves to be the largest of the rebellions against Emperor Ruzi of Han.
  • Wang Mang puts down the rebellion during the winter. Zhai is captured and executed while Liu Xin escapes.
Persia
Africa
This section is transcluded from AD 8. (edit | history)

By place

Roman Empire
Europe
Persia
Judea
China
  • Start of Chushi era of the Chinese Han dynasty.
  • Wang Mang crushes a rebellion by Chai I, and on the winter solstice (which has been dated January 10 of the following year) officially assumes the title emperor, establishing the short-lived Xin dynasty. [27]

By topic

Arts
This section is transcluded from AD 9. (edit | history)

By place

China
  • January 10 – Wang Mang founds the short-lived Xin dynasty in China (until AD 25). Wang Mang names his wife, Wang, empress and his son, Wang Lin Crown Prince, heir to the throne.
  • Empress Wang is given the title of Duchess Dowager of Ding'an, while Ruzi Ying, the former Emperor of Han, becomes the Duke of Ding'an. Ruzi Ying is placed under house arrest.
Roman Empire

By topic

Literature

Demographics

Estimates for the world population in 1 AD range from 150 to 300 million. The below table summarizes estimates by various authors.

PRB

(1973–2016) [30]

UN

(2015) [31]

Maddison

(2008) [32]

HYDE

(2010) [33]

Tanton

(1994) [34]

Biraben

(1980) [35]

McEvedy &

Jones (1978) [36]

Thomlinson

(1975) [37]

Durand

(1974) [38]

Clark

(1967) [39]

300M [40] 300M231M [41] 188M [42] 150M255M170M200M270–330M256M [43]


Significant people

Births

Transcluding articles: AD 1, AD 2, AD 3, AD 4, AD 5, AD 6, AD 7, AD 8, and AD 9

AD 1

AD 2

AD 3

AD 4

AD 5

AD 6

AD 7

AD 8

AD 9

Deaths

Transcluding articles: AD 1, AD 2, AD 3, AD 4, AD 5, AD 6, AD 7, AD 8, and AD 9

AD 1

AD 2

AD 3

AD 4

AD 6

AD 7

AD 8

AD 9

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Julio-Claudian dynasty</span> Roman imperial dynasty

The Julio-Claudian dynasty comprised the first five Roman emperors: Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">10s</span> Second decade of the first century AD

The 10s decade ran from January 1, AD 10, to December 31, AD 19.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">20s</span> Third decade of the first century AD

The 20s decade ran from January 1, AD 20, to December 31, AD 29.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">30s</span> Fourth decade of the first century AD

The 30s decade ran from January 1, AD 30, to December 31, AD 39.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">40s</span> Fifth decade of the first century AD

The 40s decade ran from January 1, AD 40, to December 31, AD 49.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1st century BC</span> One hundred years, from 100 BC to 1 BC

The 1st century BC, also known as the last century BC and the last century BCE, started on the first day of 100 BC and ended on the last day of 1 BC. The AD/BC notation does not use a year zero; however, astronomical year numbering does use a zero, as well as a minus sign, so "2 BC" is equal to "year –1". 1st century AD follows.

AD 9 (IX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Sabinus and Camerinus. The denomination "AD 9" for this year has been used since the late medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

This article concerns the period 39 BC – 30 BC.

AD 4 was a common year starting on Wednesday or a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Proleptic Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Catus and Saturninus. The denomination "AD 4" for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

6 was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lepidus and Lucius Arruntius. The denomination "AD 6" for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

AD 8 was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Camillus and Quinctilianus. The denomination "AD 8" for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">AD 23</span> Calendar year

AD 23 (XXIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Pollio and Vetus. The denomination AD 23 for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

The 0s BC were the period between 9 BC and 1 BC, the last nine years of the before Christ era. It is one of two "0-to-9" decade-like timespans that contain nine years, along with the 0s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">40s BC</span>

This article concerns the period 49 BC – 40 BC.

This article concerns the period 19 BC – 10 BC.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1 BC</span> Calendar year

Year 1 BC was a common year starting on Friday or Saturday in the Julian calendar and a leap year starting on Thursday in the proleptic Julian calendar. It was also a leap year starting on Saturday in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. At the time, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Lentulus and Piso. The denomination 1 BC for this year has been used since the early medieval period when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years. The following year is AD 1 in the widely used Julian calendar and the proleptic Gregorian calendar, which both do not have a "year zero".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaius Caesar</span> Grandson and heir of Roman emperor Augustus

Gaius Caesar was a grandson and heir to the throne of Roman emperor Augustus, alongside his younger brother Lucius Caesar. Although he was born to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia, Augustus' only daughter, Gaius and Lucius were raised by their grandfather as his adopted sons and joint-heirs. He experienced an accelerated political career befitting a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, with the Roman Senate allowing him to advance his career without first holding a quaestorship or praetorship, offices that ordinary senators were required to hold as part of the cursus honorum.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lucius Caesar</span> Grandson of emperor Augustus (17 BC – 2 AD)

Lucius Caesar was a grandson of Augustus, the first Roman emperor. The son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder, Augustus' only daughter, Lucius was adopted by his grandfather along with his older brother, Gaius Caesar. As the emperor's adopted sons and joint-heirs to the Roman Empire, Lucius and Gaius had promising political and military careers. However, Lucius died of a sudden illness on 20 August 2 AD, in Massilia, Gaul, while traveling to meet the Roman army in Hispania. His brother Gaius also died at a relatively young age on 21 February 4 AD. The untimely loss of both heirs compelled Augustus to redraw the line of succession by adopting Lucius' younger brother, Agrippa Postumus as well as his stepson, Tiberius on 26 June 4 AD.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Illyricum (Roman province)</span> Roman province from 27 BC to 69/79 AD

Illyricum was a Roman province that existed from 27 BC to sometime during the reign of Vespasian. The province comprised Illyria/Dalmatia in the south and Pannonia in the north. Illyria included the area along the east coast of the Adriatic Sea and its inland mountains, eventually being named Dalmatia. Pannonia included the northern plains that now are a part of Serbia, Croatia and Hungary. The area roughly corresponded to part or all of the territories of today's Albania, Kosovo, Montenegro, Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, and Slovenia.

AD 2 (II) or 2 AD was a common year starting on Sunday or Monday of the Julian calendar and a common year starting on Sunday of the proleptic Julian calendar. In the Roman Empire, it was known as the Year of the Consulship of Vinicius and Varus, named after Roman consuls Publius Vinicius and Alfenus Varus, and less frequently, as year 755 AUC within the Roman Empire. The denomination "AD 2" for this year has been used since the early medieval period, when the Anno Domini calendar era became the prevalent method in Europe for naming years.

References

  1. ↑ Jerome ( Chronicon 2020) says he died in AD 4 in the 70th year of his life, which would place the year of his birth at 65 BC.
  1. ↑ Murdoch 2004, p. 57.
  2. ↑ Going by Daryaee (2012) Daryaee, Touraj (2012). "Appendix: Ruling Dynasties of Iran". In Daryaee, Touraj (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of Iranian History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–432. ISBN 978-0199875757.
  3. ↑ Velleius Paterculus, The Roman History, Book II. p 271.
  4. ↑ Thomas A. Wilson (2003), in Xinzhong Yao (Ed.), RoutledgeCurzon Encyclopedia of Confucianism, "Baocheng Xuan Ni Gong", p. 26.
  5. ↑ Book of Han , 12.351
  6. 1 2 Declercq 2000.
  7. 1 2 Declercq 2002.
  8. ↑ Dunn 2003.
  9. ↑ "Cassius Dio - Book 55". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2023-06-12.
  10. 1 2 3 Klingaman, William K. (1991). The first century : emperors, gods and everyman. Internet Archive. London : Hamish Hamilton. ISBN   978-0-241-12887-9.
  11. ↑ Roller, Duane W (2003). The World of Juba II and Kleopatra Selene. New York: Routledge.
  12. ↑ "Augustus". HISTORY. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  13. ↑ "Wang Mang | emperor of Xin dynasty". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  14. ↑ Klingaman 1990, p. 64.
  15. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 26.
  16. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 26-27.
  17. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 25.
  18. ↑ Parker, John Henry (1879). The Archaeology of Rome: Forum romanum et magnum. Vol. 5 (2nd ed.).
  19. 1 2 Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 27.
  20. 1 2 Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 29.
  21. 1 2 Velleius Paterculus, Book 2, Ch 110.
  22. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 30.
  23. ↑ Velleius Paterculus, Book 2, Ch 111.
  24. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 25-30.
  25. ↑ Suetonius, The Twelve Caesars, Tiberius, ch 9 & ch 16.
  26. ↑ Cassius Dio, The Roman Histories, Book 55, ch 28.
  27. 1 2 3 4 Klingaman 1990.
  28. ↑ Radman-Livaja, I., Dizda, M., Archaeological Traces of the Pannonian Revolt 6–9 AD: Evidence and Conjectures, Veröffentlichungen der Altertumskommiion für Westfalen Landschaftsverband Westfalen-Lippe, Band XVIII, p. 49
  29. ↑ Luke 2.
  30. ↑ Data from Population Reference Bureau Archived 2008-05-20 at the Wayback Machine . 2016 estimate: (a) "2016 World Population Data Sheet" 2015 estimate: (b) Toshiko Kaneda, 2015, "2015 World Population Data Sheet". 2014 estimate: (c) Carl Haub, 2014, "2014 World Population Data Sheet". 2013 estimate: (d) Carl Haub, 2013, "2013 World Population Data Sheet". 2012 estimate: (e) Carl Haub, 2012, "2012 World Population Data Sheet". 2011 estimate: (f) Carl Haub, 2011, "2011 World Population Data Sheet". 2010 estimate: (g) Carl Haub, 2010, "2010 World Population Data Sheet". 2009 estimate: (h) Carl Haub, 2009, "2009 World Population Data Sheet". 2008 estimate: (i) Carl Haub, 2008, "2008 World Population Data Sheet". 2007 estimate: (j) Carl Haub, 2007, "2007 World Population Data Sheet" Archived 2011-02-24 at the Wayback Machine . 2006 estimate: (k) Carl Haub, 2006, "2006 World Population Data Sheet" Archived 2010-12-22 at the Wayback Machine . 2005 estimate: (l) Carl Haub, 2005, "2005 World Population Data Sheet" Archived 2011-04-14 at the Wayback Machine . 2004 estimate: (m) Carl Haub, 2004, "2004 World Population Data Sheet". 2003 estimate: (n) Carl Haub, 2003, "2003 World Population Data Sheet" Archived 2019-08-19 at the Wayback Machine . 2002 estimate: (o) Carl Haub, 2002, "2002 World Population Data Sheet" Archived 2017-12-09 at the Wayback Machine . 2001 estimate: (p) Carl Haub, 2001, "2001 World Population Data Sheet". 2000 estimate: (q) 2000, "9 Billion World Population by 2050" Archived 2018-02-01 at the Wayback Machine . 1997 estimate: (r) 1997, "Studying Populations". Estimates for 1995 and prior: (s) Carl Haub, 1995, "How Many People Have Ever Lived on Earth?" Population Today, Vol. 23 (no. 2), pp. 5–6.
  31. ↑ Data from United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. 1950–2100 estimates (only medium variants shown): (a) World Population Prospects: The 2008 Revision. Archived 2011-05-11 at the Wayback Machine Estimates prior to 1950: (b) "The World at Six Billion", 1999. Estimates from 1950 to 2100: (c) "Population of the entire world, yearly, 1950 - 2100", 2013. Archived November 19, 2016, at the Wayback Machine 2014: (d) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wup/Highlights/WUP2014-Highlights.pdf "2014 World Urbanization Prospects", 2014.] 2015: (e) http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Publications/Files/Key_Findings_WPP_2015.pdf"2015 World Urbanization Prospects", 2015.] Archived March 20, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  32. ↑ Angus Maddison, 2003, The World Economy: Historical Statistics, Vol. 2, OECD, Paris Archived May 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine ISBN   92-64-10412-7. "Statistical Appendix" (2008, ggdc.net) "The historical data were originally developed in three books: Monitoring the World Economy 1820-1992, OECD, Paris 1995; The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2001; The World Economy: Historical Statistics, OECD Development Centre, Paris 2003. All these contain detailed source notes. Figures for 1820 onwards are annual, wherever possible. For earlier years, benchmark figures are shown for 1 AD, 1000 AD, 1500, 1600 and 1700." "OECD countries GDP revised and updated 1991-2003 from National Accounts for OECD Countries, vol. I, 2006. Norway 1820-1990 GDP from Ola Grytten (2004), "The Gross Domestic Product for Norway, 1830-2003" in Eitrheim, Klovland and Qvigstad (eds), Historical Monetary Statistics for Norway, 1819-2003, Norges Bank, Oslo. Latin American GDP 2000-2003 revised and updated from ECLAC, Statistical Yearbook 2004 and preliminary version of the 2005 Yearbook supplied by Andre Hofman. For Chile, GDP 1820-2003 from Rolf Lűders (1998), "The Comparative Economic Performance of Chile 1810-1995", Estudios de Economia, vol. 25, no. 2, with revised population estimates from Diaz, J., R. Lűders, and G. Wagner (2005) Chili 1810-2000: la Republica en Cifras, mimeo, Instituto de Economia, Universidad Católica de Chile. For Peru, GDP 1896-1990 and population 1896-1949 from Bruno Seminario and Arlette Beltran, Crecimiento Economico en el Peru 1896-1995, Universidad del Pacifico, 1998. " "For Asia there are amendments to the GDP estimates for South and North Korea, 1911-74, to correct an error in Maddison (2003). Estimates for the Philippines, 1902-1940 were amended in line with Richard Hooley (2005), 'American Economic Policy in the Philippines, 1902-1940', Journal of Asian Economics, 16. 1820 estimates were amended for Hong Kong, the Philippines, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Taiwan and Thailand." "Asian countries GDP revised and updated 1998-2003 from AsianOutlook, April 2005. Population estimates for all countries except China and Indonesia revised and updated 1950-2008 and 2030 from International Data Base, International Programs Center, Population Division, US Bureau of the Census, April 2005 version. China's population 1990-2003 from China Statistical Yearbook 2005, China Statistics Press, Beijing. Indonesian population 1950-2003 kindly supplied by Pierre van der Eng. The figures now include three countries previously omitted: Cook Islands, Nauru and Tuvalu."
  33. ↑ Klein Goldewijk, K., A. Beusen, M. de Vos and G. van Drecht (2011). The HYDE 3.1 spatially explicit database of human induced land use change over the past 12,000 years, Global Ecology and Biogeography20(1): 73-86. doi : 10.1111/j.1466-8238.2010.00587.x (pbl.nl). HYDE (History Database of the Global Environment), 2010. HYDE 3.1 gives estimates for 5000 BC, 1000 BC and "AD 0". HYDE estimates are higher than those by Colin McEvedy (1978) but lower than those by Massimo Livi Bacci (1989, 2012). (graphs (itbulk.org)).
  34. ↑ John H. Tanton, 1994, "End of the Migration Epoch? Time For a New Paradigm", The Social Contract, Vol. 4 (no 3), pp. 162–173.
  35. ↑ Slightly updated data from original paper in French: (a) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1980, "An Essay Concerning Mankind's Evolution", Population, Selected Papers, Vol. 4, pp. 1–13. Original paper in French: (b) Jean-Noël Biraben, 1979, "Essai sur l'évolution du nombre des hommes", Population, Vol. 34 (no. 1), pp. 13–25.
  36. ↑ Colin McEvedy and Richard Jones, 1978, Atlas of World Population History, Facts on File, New York, ISBN   0-7139-1031-3.
  37. ↑ Ralph Thomlinson, 1975, Demographic Problems: Controversy over population control, 2nd Ed., Dickenson Publishing Company, Ecino, CA, ISBN   0-8221-0166-1.
  38. ↑ John D. Durand, 1974, "Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation", University of Pennsylvania, Population Center, Analytical and Technical Reports, Number 10.
  39. ↑ Colin Clark, 1967, Population Growth and Land Use, St. Martin's Press, New York, ISBN   0-333-01126-0.
  40. ↑ Haub (1995): "By 1 A.D., the world may have held about 300 million people. One estimate of the population of the Roman Empire, from Spain to Asia Minor, in 14 A.D. is 45 million. However, other historians set the figure twice as high, suggesting how imprecise population estimates of early historical periods can be."
  41. ↑ "The present figures are a revision and update of those presented on this website in 2003. The most significant changes are in the entries for the year 1, where gaps in previous tables have been filled with the new estimates for the Roman Empire in Maddison (2007). The estimates are in fact for 14 AD"
  42. ↑ Data from History Database of the Global Environment. K. Klein Goldewijk, A. Beusen and P. Janssen, "HYDE 3.1: Long-term dynamic modeling of global population and built-up area in a spatially explicit way", from table on pg. 2, Netherlands Environmental Assessment Agency (MNP), Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
  43. ↑ The estimates are in fact for 14 AD"
  44. ↑ Vogt, Katja (February 13, 2024). "Seneca". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved February 23, 2024.
  45. ↑ Fan, Ye. Book of the Later Han. Vol. 16.
  46. ↑ "Ban Biao - Chinese official". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 17 June 2018.
  47. ↑ Sanders, E. P. (1993). The Historical Figure of Jesus (1st ed.). London: Allen Lane. pp. 10–11. ISBN   978-0713990591.
  48. ↑ Kamm, Antony (August 13, 2008). The Romans: An Introduction. Routledge. p. 63. ISBN   978-1-134-04799-4.
  49. ↑ Suetonius (2000). Lives of the Caesars. OUP Oxford. ISBN   978-0-19-953756-3.
  50. ↑ Mommsen 1996.
  51. ↑ Roberts, John. The Oxford dictionary of the classical world. Oxford University Press. p. 799. ISBN   9780192801463.

Sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.