Nepal lies in the Himalayas, where earthquake activity is associated with ongoing continental collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates. These plates converge at a rate of 40–50mm (1.6–2.0in) per year. The Indian plate is thrusted beneath the continental crust of the Eurasian plate, forming thrust faults along the collision zone. The Main Frontal Thrust predominantly accommodates this motion. Earthquakes along these thrust faults have been devastating in historic times.[8]
Based on a study published in 2013, of the Main Frontal Thrust, on average a magnitude 8 or larger earthquake occurs every 750 ± 140 and 870 ± 350 years in the east Nepal region.[9] A study from 2015 found a 700-year delay between earthquakes in the region. The study also suggests that because of tectonic stress buildup, large earthquakes such as the 1934 and 2015 events in Nepal may be connected, following a historic earthquake pattern.[10] A 2016 study on historical great (M ≥ 8) earthquake pairs and cycles found that associated great earthquakes are likely to occur in the West China region through the 2020s.[11]
Earthquake
Strong ground motion map produced by the United States Geological Survey
The United States Geological Survey (USGS) said the earthquake had a magnitude of Mww 5.7 and a depth of 32.6 kilometres (20.3mi). Nepal's National Earthquake Monitoring and Research Center recorded the earthquake at 6.4 on the local magnitude scale (ML).[12] The epicenter was estimated to be in Ramidanda, in Jajarkot District.[2] The fault plane solution was determined to be reverse faulting along a northwest–southeast trending plane dipping either northeast or southwest.[5] At least 483 aftershocks were recorded following the mainshock.[13] At least six of them were of magnitudes above 4.0.[14] A magnitude 5.3 aftershock occurred on 6 November.[15]
Impact
At least 153 people were killed; 101 deaths occurred in Jajarkot District while 52 deaths occurred in Western Rukum District.[16] The deputy mayor of Nalgad Municipality in Jajarkot, Sarita Singh, was among the fatalities.[17] At least 78 or nearly half of those killed were children.[18] A total of 51 people died in the municipality while 200 houses were destroyed.[19][20] Another 375 people were injured.[21] Dr. Mandip Subedi, President of Nepal Geotechnical Society, Nepal, who visited the earthquake-affected area immediately after the earthquake, highlighted that despite the earthquake's relatively low magnitude, the high levels of damage and casualties were attributed to substandard construction in the region and because it occurred at night when people were asleep.[22] Many of the collapsed houses were made of stacked logs and rocks.[23]
About 62,039 houses were affected across thirteen districts of Nepal, of which 26,550 collapsed,[24] mostly in Rukum West District.[25] Forty-two people, including five members of a single family were killed and 100 others were injured in Aathbiskot.[26][27] More than 5,000 houses were damaged or destroyed in the municipality.[28] Eight others died in Sani Bheri. At least 40 percent of houses near the epicenter were damaged.[29] At the earthquake's epicenter in Barekot municipality, only five injuries were reported and no fatalities, while nearly all 3,500 houses in the municipality were damaged, 1,000 of them severely.[30] Several homes were damaged or destroyed in Jajarkot District.[31] Among municipalities severely affected were Bheri, where 42 people died and 344 houses were destroyed, Kushe, where seven died and 95 houses were destroyed, and Chedagad, where one person died and 100 houses were destroyed.[19][30][17] At least 13 people died in Chiuri, and the village's 40 houses were either destroyed or heavily damaged.[32] In Chiuritol, 13 people were also killed while 56 houses were destroyed. Five houses in Junichande and one house in Shivalaya were also destroyed.[19]
Nepalese officials said around 5,000 houses were damaged and 3,000 more were destroyed.[33] In Western Rukum, 2,136 houses were destroyed, 2,642 houses were partially damaged and 4,670 houses sustained minor damage. The total damages in the district was estimated at more than US$500 Million. In Jajarkot, 905 houses were destroyed and 2,745 partially damaged. Three major landslides damaged the Pasagad-Rimna section of the Bheri Corridor running from Jajarkot to Dunai, while another landslide was reported at the Khalanga-Panchkatiya section. A bridge in Rimna in Jajarkot suffered minor damage.[34] A total of 91 schools were destroyed and 122 partially damaged by the earthquake. In Jajarkot, 213 school buildings were damaged.[20] The earthquake also destroyed at least 20 healthcare facilities, including a district hospital and four maternal delivery centres.[35] Around 67,000 families were displaced in Jajarkot,[36] while 2,400 were displaced in Darma. Several deaths were subsequently reported among the displaced due to exposure and cold-related illnesses in the succeeding weeks.[37]
Injuries and damage were also reported in Dailekh, Salyan and Rolpa Districts.[31] In Salyan, around 100 houses were destroyed in Darma municipality, while 30 were destroyed in Kumakh municipality.[19] At least 100 people were injured in Western Rukum while many injuries were recorded in Jajarkot.[6] The Jajarkot district hospital was described as being packed with injured patients.[21]
The earthquake was also felt by residents in Kathmandu.[2] Shaking was felt in the Indian cities of Lucknow, Patna[38] and New Delhi, causing people to panic and flee buildings.[39] In the cities of Bahraich and Jaipur, many houses and buildings, including two hotels, were cracked.[40][41]
The 6 November aftershock injured 16 people and collapsed three houses in West Rukum and Jajarkot districts. Landslides blocked roads near Rimna.[42][43][44]
Response
Domestic
Narayan Prasad Bhattarai, the spokesperson for the Nepalese Home Ministry, said that security forces had been deployed to the area.[38] Helicopters were also deployed to deliver humanitarian aid and staff, while soldiers were sent to clear roads blocked by landslides. At a hospital in Nepalgunj, more than 100 beds were allotted in standby for earthquake victims.[45] A member of Western Rukum's police department said search and rescue teams had to remove landslide debris in order to reach the affected area.[4]
President Ram Chandra Poudel expressed sadness over the loss of human lives and property in the earthquake and appealed to the government and others concerned for effective rescue and relief work in affected areas.[46] He later postponed his ten-day visit to France, Italy and Germany that was scheduled to start on 8 November and cancelled his participation at the Paris Peace Forum on 10–11 November, citing the ongoing situation.[47] Prime Minister Pushpa Kamal Dahal also expressed "his deep sorrow over the human and physical damage caused by the earthquake".[38] On 4 November, he visited the area on a helicopter accompanied by a 16-member army medical team.[48] A total of 41 medical workers were sent to the affected areas.[49]
Officials also announced communications with villages of Jajarkot District could not be restored.[50] Helicopters with medical teams and medicines were prepared to fly into the affected area when weather conditions improved.[51] Light aircraft were also requested to be on standby in participating in emergency missions.[22] The Nepalese Army later managed to deploy five helicopters and an aircraft. Nepal Airlines also helped in medical evacuations.[49] The severely injured were airlifted to Kathmandu, Surkhet and Nepalgunj. People with minor injuries were treated at local medical centers and district hospitals.[52]
About 4,000 personnel from the Nepalese Army, Police and Armed Police Force participated in search and rescue operations,[53] while the national government approved a Rs 100 million fund to support in these missions. The fund was divided into Rs 50 million allocated to West Rukum and Jajarkot districts.[54] It also said it would provide free medical treatment to earthquake victims and provide Rs 200,000 each to families of those killed,[55] as well as Rs 50,000 each to displaced families to be used in the construction of temporary housing.[56] The government of Bagmati Province also pledged Rs 15 million to support the affected population in Jajarkot. The Nepali Congress party also pitched Rs 5 million in financial aid for the national government.[54]Buddha Air granted Rs 10,000,000 for earthquake victims.[57]
Search and rescue operations ended 36 hours after the earthquake, on 5 November. In Jajarkot District, an official said the emphasis was providing assistance to survivors.[58]Nepal Telecom said voice, SMS and Wi-Fi services would be free for its customers in Rukum East, Rukum West and Jajarkot Districts for five days to facilitate information exchange.[59] The Ministry of Health and Population requested additional food aid from the World Food Programme and UNICEF to distribute in affected areas.[60]
International
Countries
Bangladesh: Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina sent a letter to her counterpart Prachanda stating that she was "deeply shocked and saddened" by the news of the earthquake. She reiterated that "the people of Bangladesh stand by the people of Nepal with the spirit of brotherhood during this difficult time" and said "we extend our deepest condolences to the bereaved families who have lost their dearest family members and their friends."[61]
India: Prime Minister Narendra Modi said he was deeply saddened by the loss of lives and damage from the earthquake in Nepal, adding that India stood in "solidarity with the people of Nepal and is ready to extend all possible assistance".[45] India sent 21 tonnes of humanitarian aid to Nepal along with a team of experts from the National Disaster Response Force with relief and rescue materials.[63][64]
Pakistan: Caretaker Prime Minister Anwar ul Haq Kakar sent thoughts and prayers to the earthquake victims and said his country is ready to send assistance to Nepal.[66]
Russia: President Vladimir Putin sent a letter to President Poudel on 4 November expressing sorrow over the loss of lives and properties.[67]
European Union: On 15 November, the bloc approved a €2 million aid package to Nepal that would include €600,000 to support the work of humanitarian partners already providing assistance in affected areas. In addition, €200,000 was allocated to the Nepalese Red Cross Society, via the Disaster Response Emergency Fund (DREF) of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC).[69]
International organizations
UNICEF announced it was working with partner organizations to assess the damage and the impact on children and families.[70]
Rukum District was a "hill" and "mountain" district some 280 km (170 mi) west of Kathmandu partially belonging to Lumbini Province and partially to Karnali Province before split into two districts Western Rukum and Eastern Rukum after the state's reconstruction of administrative divisions in 2017. Rukum covers an area of 2,877 km2 (1,111 sq mi) with population of 207,290 in 2011 Nepal census. Musikot was the district's administrative center.
Langtang was a village development committee (VDC) in Rasuwa District in the Bagmati Zone of northern Nepal. It was located within the Langtang valley, approximately 40 miles northeast of Kathmandu. At the time of the 1991 Nepal census, it had a population of 468 people living in 100 individual households.
The 1934 Nepal–India earthquake or 1934 Bihar–Nepal earthquake was one of the worst earthquakes in India's history. The towns of Munger and Muzaffarpur were completely destroyed. This 8.0 magnitude earthquake occurred on 15 January 1934 at around 2:13 pm IST and caused widespread damage in northern Bihar and in Nepal.
The following is a summary of significant earthquakes during the 21st century. In terms of fatalities, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was the most destructive event with 227,898 confirmed fatalities, followed by the 2010 Haiti earthquake with about 160,000 fatalities, the 2008 Sichuan earthquake with 87,587 fatalities, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake suffered by Pakistan with 87,351 fatalities, and the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes with at least 59,488 fatalities.
An earthquake occurred on September 2, 2009, at 14:55:01 local time in West Java, Indonesia. The magnitude 7.0 earthquake killed at least 81 people, injured over 1,297, and displaced over 210,000. The quake was felt in the capital Jakarta, although damage there was minimal, and it was Indonesia's deadliest earthquake since the 2006 Pangandaran earthquake and tsunami.
The 2011 Sikkim earthquake occurred with a moment magnitude of 6.9 and was centered within the Kanchenjunga Conservation Area, near the border of Nepal and the Indian state of Sikkim, at 18:10 IST on Sunday, 18 September. The earthquake was felt across northeastern India, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and southern Tibet.
The 2011 Van earthquakes occurred in eastern Turkey near the city of Van. The first earthquake happened on 23 October at 13:41 local time. The shock had a Mww magnitude of 7.1 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe). It occurred at a shallow depth, causing heavy shaking across much of eastern Turkey and lighter tremors across neighboring parts of the South Caucasus and Levant. According to Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency on 30 October, the earthquake killed 604 and injured 4,152. At least 11,232 buildings sustained damage in the region, 6,017 of which were found to be uninhabitable. The uninhabitable homes left as much as 8,321 households with an average household population of around 7.6 homeless in the province; this could mean that at least around 60,000 people were left homeless. The other 5,215 have been damaged but are habitable. A separate earthquake within the same earthquake system happened on 9 November at 21:23 local time. 38 people were killed and 260 people were injured in the 9 November earthquake.
The April 2015 Nepal earthquake killed 8,962 people and injured 21,952 across the Nepal, India, China and Bangladesh. It occurred at on Saturday 25 April 2015, with a magnitude of 7.8Mw or 8.1Ms and a maximum Mercalli Intensity of X (Extreme). Its epicenter was east of Gorkha District at Barpak, Gorkha, roughly 85 km (53 mi) northwest of central Kathmandu, and its hypocenter was at a depth of approximately 8.2 km (5.1 mi). It was the worst natural disaster to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal–India earthquake. The ground motion recorded in Kathmandu, the capital of Nepal, was of low frequency, which, along with its occurrence at an hour when many people in rural areas were working outdoors, decreased the loss of human lives.
An earthquake struck Nepal at 11:56:25 NST on 25 April 2015 with a moment magnitude of 7.8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent). It was the most powerful earthquake to strike Nepal since the 1934 Nepal–Bihar earthquake. Many thousands of people died, with most casualties reported in Nepal, and adjoining areas of India, China,Bhutan and Bangladesh.
A major earthquake occurred in Nepal on 12 May 2015 at 12:50 pm local time with a moment magnitude of 7.3, 18 kilometres (11 mi) southeast of Kodari. The epicenter was on the border of Dolakha and Sindhupalchowk, two districts of Nepal. This earthquake occurred on the same fault as the larger magnitude 7.8 earthquake of 25 April, but further east than the original quake. As such, it is considered to be an aftershock of the April quake. It struck at a depth of 18.5 km (11.5 mi). Shaking was felt in northern parts of India including Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Tremors were felt as far as about 2,400 km away from the epicenter in Chennai.
The October 2015 Hindu Kush earthquake was a magnitude 7.5 earthquake that struck South Asia on 26 October 2015, at 13:39 AFT with the epicenter 45 km north of Kuran wa Munjan, Afghanistan, at a depth of 231.0 km.
The Nepal humanitarian crisis (2015-2017) developed owing to a lack of action following the April 2015 Nepal earthquake and its aftershocks. It was compounded by political factors as a result of the 2015 Nepal blockade. Victims of the earthquakes were still living in flimsy, temporary shelters more than a year after the initial devastation. The governmental National Reconstruction Authority had not devised relocation plans for these people as recently as July 2016. In Sindhupalchok District, the region that had suffered the worst devastation, the humanitarian situation was a little better towards the end of 2016 than it had been in 2015.
The 2016 Kumamoto earthquakes were a series of earthquakes, including a magnitude 7.0 mainshock which struck at 01:25 JST on April 16, 2016 beneath Kumamoto City of Kumamoto Prefecture in Kyushu Region, Japan, at a depth of about 10 kilometres, and a foreshock earthquake with a magnitude 6.2 at 21:26 JST (12:26 UTC) on April 14, 2016, at a depth of about 11 kilometres.
Western Rukum a part of Karnali Province, is one of the seventy-seven districts of Nepal. Musikot is the headquarter of the district.
The 2020 Elazığ earthquake occurred at 20:55 local time on 24 January in Turkey. The magnitude of the earthquake was determined to be 6.7 Mw. The earthquake's epicentre was close to the town of Sivrice in Elazığ Province and felt in the neighbouring provinces of Diyarbakır, Malatya and Adıyaman, and the neighbouring countries of Armenia, Syria and Iran. Kandilli Observatory reported the magnitude of the earthquake as 6.5 Mw . A total of 41 people were killed and more than 1,600 were injured.
The 1833 Nepal–India earthquake occurred on August 26 at 22:58 local time (NPT). This earthquake had an estimated moment magnitude of 7.6–7.9 and struck with an epicenter somewhere in or near the Kathmandu Valley. The earthquake caused major destruction in numerous towns and villages in Nepal, northern India, and Tibet. The earthquake was also felt in Chittagong, Bangladesh. Despite the extent of the damage, the number of fatalities resulting from the earthquake was surprisingly low, at approximately 500. This was because the mainshock was preceded by two smaller but intense foreshocks earlier that day, causing many residents to take refuge outside their homes.
An earthquake struck Pakistan's province of Balochistan near the city of Harnai on 7 October 2021. The moment magnitude 5.9 Mww quake struck in the early morning at 03:01 local time, killing at least 42 people and injuring 300 others. The earthquake occurred just one day before the anniversary of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake.
A moment magnitude 5.7 earthquake struck Doti District, Sudurpashchim Province, Nepal on 9 November 2022. The earthquake was widely felt in western Nepal and northern India.
1 2 National Earthquake Information Center (3 November 2023). "M 5.7 – Nepal". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 3 November 2023. Retrieved 3 November 2023.
↑ Turner, Bethan; Jenkins, Jennifer; Turner, Rebecca; A.L., Parker; Alison, Sinclair; Sian, Davies; G.P., Hayes; Antonio, Villaseñor; R.L., Dart; A.C., Tarr; K.P., Furlong; H.M., Benz (2013). "Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010 Himalaya and Vicinity". Open-File Report 2010‒1083–J, Ver. 1.1. United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 21 September 2023. Retrieved 4 November 2023.
↑ "Earthquakes – 2023". National Earthquake Monitoring & Research Center. 3 November 2023. Archived from the original on 6 November 2023. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
↑ National Earthquake Information Center (6 November 2023). "M 5.3 – 37km ENE of Dailekh, Nepal". United States Geological Survey. Archived from the original on 7 November 2023. Retrieved 6 November 2023.
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