Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta

Last updated

Advaita Vedanta and Mahayana Buddhism share significant similarities. Those similarities have attracted Indian and Western scholars attention, [1] and have also been criticised by concurring schools. The similarities have been interpreted as Buddhist influences on Advaita Vedanta, though some deny such influences, or see them as expressions of the same eternal truth. [2]

Contents

Advaita Vedanta (IAST, Advaita Vedānta; Sanskrit : अद्वैत वेदान्त; literally, not-two ) is the oldest extant sub-school of Vedanta – an orthodox (āstika) school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice. Advaita darśana (philosophy, world view, teaching) is one of the classic Indian paths to spiritual realization. [3] [4] It took shape with the writings of Gaudapada in the 6th century CE.

Buddhism is a religion [5] and dharma that encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices based on teachings attributed to the Buddha (5th century BCE), but diversified since then in a wide variety of practices and traditions. Buddhism originated in India, from where it spread through much of Asia. It declined in India during the middle ages, after the rise of new forms of Hinduism, including Advaita Vedanta.

Buddhist influences

Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share terminology and numerous doctrines with Mahayana Buddhism. [6] [7] The similarities between Advaita and Buddhism have attracted Indian and Western scholars attention. [1] [8] and have also been criticised by concurring schools. Scholarly views have historically and in modern times ranged from "Advaita and Buddhism are very different", to "Advaita and Buddhism absolutely coincide in their main tenets", to "after purifying Buddhism and Advaita of accidental or historically conditioned accretions, both systems can be safely regarded as an expression of one and the same eternal absolute truth." [9]

Similarities

Advaita Vedānta and various other schools of Hindu philosophy share numerous terminology, doctrines and dialectical techniques with Buddhism. [10] [11] According to a 1918 paper by the Buddhism scholar O. Rozenberg, "a precise differentiation between Brahmanism and Buddhism is impossible to draw." [10] Murti notices that "the ultimate goal" of Vedanta, Samkhya and Mahayana Buddhism is "remarkably similar"; while Advaita Vedanta postulates a "foundational self," "Mahayana Buddhism implicitly affirms the existence of a deep underlying reality behind all empirical manifestations in its conception of sunyata (the indeterminate, the void), or vijnapti-matrata (consciousness only), or tathata (thatness), or dharmata (noumenal reality)." [12]

Both traditions hold that "the empirical world is transitory, a show of appearances", [13] [14] and both admit "degrees of truth or existence". [15] Both traditions emphasize the human need for spiritual liberation (moksha, nirvana, kaivalya), however with different assumptions. [16] [note 1] According to Frank Whaling, the similarities between Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism are not limited to the terminology and some doctrines, but also includes practice. The monastic practices and monk tradition in Advaita are similar to those found in Buddhism. [18]

Mahayana influences

The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on Advaita Vedānta has been significant. [18] [19] Sharma points out that the early commentators on the Brahma Sutras were all realists, or pantheist realists. He states that they were influenced by Buddhism much like how Upanishadic dialectical techniques significantly influenced Buddhists, particularly during the 5th-6th centuries CE when Buddhist thought developing in the Yogacara school. [20] Eliot Deutsch and Rohit Dalvi state:

In any event a close relationship between the Mahayana schools and Vedanta did exist with the latter borrowing some of the dialectical techniques, if not the specific doctrines, of the former much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings. [11]

Von Glasenap states that there was a mutual influence between Vedanta and Buddhism. [21] Dasgupta and Mohanta suggest that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedānta represent "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara." [22] [note 2]

The influence of Mahayana Buddhism on other religions and philosophies was not limited to Vedānta. Kalupahana notes that the Visuddhimagga of Theravada Buddhism tradition contains "some metaphysical speculations, such as those of the Sarvastivadins, the Sautrantikas, and even the Yogacarins". [25]

Gauḍapāda

According to Sarma, "to mistake him [Gauḍapāda] to be a hidden or open Buddhist is absurd". [26] The doctrines of Gauḍapāda and Buddhism are totally opposed, states Murti: [27]

We have been talking of borrowing, influence and relationship in rather general terms. It is necessary to define the possible nature of the borrowing, granting that it did take place [...] The Vedantins stake everything on the Atman (Brahman) and accept the authority of the Upanishads. We have pointed out at length the Nairatmya standpoint of Buddhism and its total opposition to the Atman (Self, substance, the permanent and universal) in any form. [28]

Advaitins have traditionally challenged the Buddhist influence thesis. [29] The influence of Buddhist doctrines on Gauḍapāda has been a vexed question. [29] [30] Modern scholarship generally accepts that Gauḍapāda was influenced by Buddhism, at least in terms of using Buddhist terminology to explain his ideas, but adds that Gauḍapāda was a Vedantin and not a Buddhist. [29] Gauḍapāda adopted some Buddhist terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings. [31] [6] While there is shared terminology, the Advaita doctrines of Gaudapada and Buddhism also show differences. [27] [32]

The influence of Mahayana on Advaita Vedanta, states Deutsch, goes back at least to Gauḍapāda, where he "clearly draws from Buddhist philosophical sources for many of his arguments and distinctions and even for the forms and imagery in which these arguments are cast much like how Buddhists had borrowed Vedic terminology. [11]

According to Plott, the influence of Buddhism on Gauḍapāda is undeniable and to be expected. [31] Gauḍapāda, in his Karikas text, uses the leading concepts and wording of Mahayana Buddhist school but, states John Plott, he reformulated them to the Upanishadic themes. [31] Yet, according to Plott, this influence is to be expected:

We must emphasize again that generally throughout the Gupta Dynasty, and even more so after its decline, there developed such a high degree of syncretism and such toleration of all points of view that Mahayana Buddhism had been Hinduized almost as much as Hinduism had been Buddhaized. [31]

According to Mahadevan, Gauḍapāda adopted Buddhist terminology and borrowed its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and borrowed its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings. [31] Gauḍapāda took over the Buddhist doctrines that ultimate reality is pure consciousness (vijñapti-mātra) [33] [note 3] and "that the nature of the world is the four-cornered negation, which is the structure of Māyā". [33] [36] Gauḍapāda also took over the Buddhist concept of ajāta from Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy, which uses the term anutpāda. [37] [38] [39] [note 4]

Michael Comans states Gauḍapāda, an early Vedantin, utilised some arguments and reasoning from Madhyamaka Buddhist texts by quoting them almost verbatim. However, Comans adds there is a fundamental difference between Buddhist thought and that of Gauḍapāda, in that Buddhism has as its philosophical basis the doctrine of Dependent Origination according to which "everything is without an essential nature (nissvabhava), and everything is empty of essential nature (svabhava-sunya)", while Gauḍapāda does not rely upon this central teaching of Buddhism at all, and therefore should not be considered a Buddhist. Gauḍapāda's Ajātivāda (doctrine of no-origination or non -creation) is an outcome of reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual reality according to which "there exists a Reality (sat) that is unborn (aja)" that has essential nature (svabhava) and this is the "eternal, undecaying Self, Brahman (Atman)". [6] Thus, Gauḍapāda differs from Buddhist scholars such as Nagarjuna, states Comans, by accepting the premises and relying on the fundamental teaching of the Upanishads. [6]

Gauḍapāda, states Raju, "wove Buddhist doctrines into a philosophy of the Māṇḍukya Upanisad, which was further developed by Shankara". [40] Of particular interest is Chapter Four of Gauḍapāda's text Karika, in which according to Bhattacharya, two karikas refer to the Buddha and the term Asparśayoga is borrowed from Buddhism. [29] According to Murti, "the conclusion is irresistible that Gauḍapāda, a Vedānta philosopher, is attempting an Advaitic interpretation of Vedānta in the light of the Madhyamika and Yogacara doctrines. He even freely quotes and appeals to them." [27] However, adds Murti, the doctrines are unlike Buddhism. Chapter One, Two and Three are entirely Vedantin and founded on the Upanishads, with little Buddhist flavor. [27] Further, state both Murti and King, no Vedānta scholars who followed Gauḍapāda ever quoted from Chapter Four, they only quote from the first three. [27] [41]

Shankara

Given the principal role attributed to Shankara in Advaita tradition, his works have been examined by scholars for similarities with Buddhism. [18] [42] Buddhism supporters have targeted Shankara, states Biderman, while his Hindu supporters state that "accusations" concerning explicit or implicit Buddhist influence are not relevant. [1] Adi Shankara, states Natalia Isaeva, incorporated "into his own system a Buddhist notion of maya which had not been minutely elaborated in the Upanishads". [10] According to Mudgal, Shankara's Advaita and the Buddhist Madhyamaka view of ultimate reality are compatible because they are both transcendental, indescribable, non-dual and only arrived at through a via negativa (neti neti). Mudgal concludes therefore that "the difference between Sunyavada (Mahayana) philosophy of Buddhism and Advaita philosophy of Hinduism may be a matter of emphasis, not of kind. [43] [note 5]

Similarly, there are many points of contact between Buddhism's Vijnanavada and Shankara's Advaita. [45] According to Marxist historian S.N. Dasgupta,

Shankara and his followers borrowed much of their dialectic form of criticism from the Buddhists. His Brahman was very much like the sunya of Nagarjuna [...] The debts of Shankara to the self-luminosity [note 6] of the Vijnanavada Buddhism can hardly be overestimated. There seems to be much truth in the accusations against Shankara by Vijnana Bhiksu and others that he was a hidden Buddhist himself. I am led to think that Shankara's philosophy is largely a compound of Vijnanavada and Sunyavada Buddhism with the Upanisad notion of the permanence of self superadded. [46]

Daniel Ingalls writes, "If we are to adopt a metaphysical and static view of philosophy there is little difference between Shankara and Vijnanavada Buddhism, so little, in fact that the whole discussion is fairly pointless. But if we try to think our way back into minds of philosophers whose works we read, there is a very real difference between the antagonists". [1]

Mudgal additionally states that the Upanishadic and Buddhist currents of thought "developed separately and independently, opposed to one another, as the orthodox and heterodox, the thesis and antithesis, and a synthesis was attempted by the Advaitin Shankara". [47]

According to Daniel Ingalls, the Japanese Buddhist scholarship has argued that Adi Shankara did not understand Buddhism. [8]

Criticisms of concurring Hindu schools

Some Hindu scholars criticized Advaita for its Maya and non-theistic doctrinal similarities with Buddhism. [48] [18] Ramanuja, the founder of Vishishtadvaita Vedānta, accused Adi Shankara of being a Prachanna Bauddha, that is, a "crypto-Buddhist", [1] and someone who was undermining theistic Bhakti devotionalism. [18] The non-Advaita scholar Bhaskara of the Bhedabheda Vedānta tradition, similarly around 800 CE, accused Shankara's Advaita as "this despicable broken down Mayavada that has been chanted by the Mahayana Buddhists", and a school that is undermining the ritual duties set in Vedic orthodoxy. [18]

Differences from Buddhism

Atman and anatta

The Advaita Vedānta tradition has historically rejected accusations of crypto-Buddhism highlighting their respective views on Atman, Anatta and Brahman. [7]

Advaita Vedānta holds the premise, "Soul exists, and Soul (or self, Atman) is a self evident truth". Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist, and An-atman (or Anatta, non-self) [49] is self evident". [50] [51] Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad gives a more nuanced view, stating that the Advaitins "assert a stable subjectivity, or a unity of consciousness through all the specific states of indivuated consciousness, but not an individual subject of consciousness [...] the Advaitins split immanent reflexivity from 'mineness'." [52]

In Buddhism, Anatta (Pali, Sanskrit cognate An-atman) is the concept that in human beings and living creatures, there is no "eternal, essential and absolute something called a soul, self or atman". [53] Buddhist philosophy rejects the concept and all doctrines associated with atman, call atman as illusion (maya), asserting instead the theory of "no-self" and "no-soul." [50] [54] Most schools of Buddhism, from its earliest days, have denied the existence of the "self, soul" in its core philosophical and ontological texts. In contrast to Advaita, which describes knowing one's own soul as identical with Brahman as the path to nirvana, in its soteriological themes Buddhism has defined nirvana as the state of a person who knows that he or she has "no self, no soul". [53] [55]

The Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed Atman, but nevertheless assumes its existence, [56] and Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self." [57] In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence" states Jayatilleke. [56]

Yet, some Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of common era, such as the Mahayana tradition's Tathāgatagarbha sūtras suggest self-like concepts, variously called Tathagatagarbha or Buddha nature . [58] [59] In modern era studies, scholars such as Wayman and Wayman state that these "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality. [60] [61] Some scholars posit that the Tathagatagarbha Sutras were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists. [62] [63] [64]

Epistemology

The epistemological foundations of Buddhism and Advaita Vedānta are different. Buddhism accepts two valid means to reliable and correct knowledge – perception and inference, while Advaita Vedānta accepts six (described elsewhere in this article). [65] [66] [67] However, some Buddhists in history, have argued that Buddhist scriptures are a reliable source of spiritual knowledge, corresponding to Advaita's Śabda pramana, however Buddhists have treated their scriptures as a form of inference method. [68]

Ontology

Advaita Vedānta posits a substance ontology, an ontology which holds that underlying the change and impermanence of empirical reality is an unchanging and permanent absolute reality, like an eternal substance it calls Atman-Brahman. [69] In its substance ontology, as like other philosophies, there exist a universal, particulars and specific properties and it is the interaction of particulars that create events and processes. [70]

In contrast, Buddhism posits a process ontology, also called as "event ontology". [71] [70] According to the Buddhist thought, particularly after the rise of ancient Mahayana Buddhism scholarship, there is neither empirical nor absolute permanent reality and ontology can be explained as a process. [71] [72] [note 7] There is a system of relations and interdependent phenomena (pratitya samutpada) in Buddhist ontology, but no stable persistent identities, no eternal universals nor particulars. Thought and memories are mental constructions and fluid processes without a real observer, personal agency or cognizer in Buddhism. In contrast, in Advaita Vedānta, like other schools of Hinduism, the concept of self (atman) is the real on-looker, personal agent and cognizer. [74]

The Pali Abdhidhamma and Theravada Buddhism considered all existence as dhamma, and left the ontological questions about reality and the nature of dhamma unexplained. [71]

According to Renard, Advaita's theory of three levels of reality is built on the two levels of reality found in the Madhyamika. [75]

Shankara on Buddhism

A central concern for Shankara, in his objections against Buddhism, is what he perceives as nihilism of the Buddhists. [76] Shankara states that there "must be something beyond cognition, namely a cognizer," [77] which he asserts is the self-evident Atman or witness. [78] Buddhism, according to Shankara, denies the cognizer. He also considers the notion of Brahman as pure knowledge and "the quintessence of positive reality." [76]

The teachings in Brahma Sutras, states Shankara, differ from both the Buddhist realists and the Buddhist idealists. Shankara elaborates on these arguments against various schools of Buddhism, partly presenting refutations which were already standard in his time, and partly offering his own objections. [79] Shankara's original contribution in explaining the difference between Advaita and Buddhism was his "argument for identity" and the "argument for the witness". [80] In Shankara's view, the Buddhist are internally inconsistent in their theories, because "the reservoir-consciousness that [they] set up, being momentary, is no better than ordinary consciousness. Or, if [they] allow the reservoir-consciousness to be lasting, [they] destroy [their] theory of momentariness." [81] In response to the idealists, he notes that their alaya-vijnana , or store-house consciousness, runs counter to the Buddhist theory of momentariness. [76] With regard to the Sunyavada (Madhyamaka), Shankara states that "being contradictory to all valid means of knowledge, we have not thought worth while to refute" and "common sense (loka-vyavahara) cannot be denied without the discovery of some other truth". [82]

Buddhist criticisms

A few Buddhist scholars made the opposite criticism in the medieval era toward their Buddhist opponents. In the sixth century AD, for example, the Mahayana Buddhist scholar Bhaviveka redefined Vedantic concepts to show how they fit into Madhyamaka concepts, [83] and "equate[d] the Buddha's Dharma body with Brahman, the ultimate reality of the Upanishads." [84] In his Madhyamakahṛdayakārikaḥ, Bhaviveka stages a Hinayana (Theravada) interlocutor, who accuses Mahayana Buddhists of being "crypto-Vedantins". [85] [86] [note 8] Medieval era Tibetan Gelugpa scholars accused the Jonang school of being "crypto-Vedantist." [87] [88] [note 9] Contemporary scholar David Kalupahana called the seventh century Buddhist scholar Chandrakirti a "crypto-Vedantist", a view rejected by scholars of Madhayamika Buddhism. [89]

Notes

  1. ↑ Helmuth von Glasenapp writes: "The Buddhist Nirvana is, therefore, not the primordial ground, the eternal essence, which is at the basis of everything and form which the whole world has arisen (the Brahman of the Upanishads) but the reverse of all that we know, something altogether different which must be characterized as a nothing in relation to the world, but which is experienced as highest bliss by those who have attained to it (Anguttara Nikaya, Navaka-nipata 34). Vedantists and Buddhists have been fully aware of the gulf between their doctrines, a gulf that cannot be bridged over. According to Majjhima Nikaya, Sutta 22, a doctrine that proclaims "The same is the world and the self. This I shall be after death; imperishable, permanent, eternal!" (see Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4, 4, 13), was styled by the Buddha a perfectly foolish doctrine. On the other side, the Katha Upanishad (2, 1, 14) does not see a way to deliverance in the Buddhist theory of dharmas (impersonal processes): He who supposes a profusion of particulars gets lost like rain water on a mountain slope; the truly wise man, however, must realize that his Atman is at one with the Universal Atman, and that the former, if purified from dross, is being absorbed by the latter, "just as clear water poured into clear water becomes one with it, indistinguishably." [17]
  2. ↑ This development did not end with Advaita Vedanta, but continued in Tantrism and various schools of Shaivism. Non-dual Kashmir Shaivism, for example, was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions. [23] These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika, [23] but also Tantra and the Nath-tradition. [24]
  3. ↑ It is often used interchangeably with the term citta-mātra, but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only." Several modern researchers object this translation, and the accompanying label of "absolute idealism" or "idealistic monism". [34] A better translation for vijñapti-mātra is representation-only. [35]
  4. ↑ An means "not", or "non"; utpāda means "genesis", "coming forth", "birth" [web 1] Taken together anutpāda means "having no origin", "not coming into existence", "not taking effect", "non-production". [web 2]
  5. ↑ Ninian Smart, a historian of religion, quotes Mudgal view that "the differences between Shankara and Mahayana doctrines are largely a matter of emphasis and background, rather than essence". [44] Ninian Smart is a proponent of the so-called "common core thesis", which states that all forms of mysticism share a common core. See also [web 3] and [web 4]
  6. ↑ Self-luminosity; see Deutsch 1973, p. 48; Dasgupta 1975, pp. 148–149; Indich 2000, pp. 24, 28; Menon 2012; Ganeri 2019, p. 103; Murti 1983, p. 339; Isaeva 1993, p. 102.
    For the translation and meaning of svayam prakāśa:
    • svayam: "himself, autonomous, in person" (Sanskrit Dictionary for Spoken Sanskrit, svayam)
    • prakāśa : "manifestation," literally "light" or "illumination"; "the capacity to disclose, present, or make manifest" (Fasching 2021 note 1, referring to "MacKenzie 2017, 335; cf. also Ram-Prasad 2007, 53")
    Svayam prakāśa can be translated as: On the meaning of svayam prakāśa:
    • Menezes 2017, p. 198: "Self-luminosity (svayam prakāśa) means self is pure awareness by nature"; idem Ganeri 2019: "self is pure awareness by nature."
    • Murti 1983, p. 339: "a foundational consciousness [...] to which everything is presented, but is itself no presentation, that which knows all, but is itself no object."
    For a detailed treatment, see Mackenzie 2012; Fasching 2011.
  7. ↑ Kalupahana describes how in Buddhism there is also a current which favours substance ontology. Kalupahanan sees Madhyamaka and Yogacara as reactions against developments toward substance ontology in Buddhism. [73]
  8. ↑ Nicholson: "a Hīnayāna interlocutor accuses the Mahāyāna Buddhist of being a crypto-Vedāntin, paralleling later Vedāntins who accuse the Advaita Vedānta of crypto-Buddhism." [85]
  9. ↑ The Jonang school was influenced by Yogachara and taught Shentong Buddhism, which sees the highest Truth as self-existent. [87] [88]

Related Research Articles

Nirvāṇa is a concept in Indian religions that represents the ultimate state of soteriological release, the liberation from duḥkha, suffering, and saṃsāra, the cycle of birth and rebirth.

Maya, literally "illusion" or "magic", has multiple meanings in Indian philosophies depending on the context. In later Vedic texts, māyā connotes a "magic show, an illusion where things appear to be present but are not what they seem"; the principle which shows "attributeless Absolute" as having "attributes". Māyā also connotes that which "is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal", and therefore "conceals the true character of spiritual reality".

Ātman is a Sanskrit word for the true or eternal Self or the self-existent essence of each individual, which persists across multiple bodies and lifetimes. Some schools of Indian philosophy regard the Ātman as distinct from the material or mortal ego (Ahamkara), the emotional aspect of the mind (Citta), and existence in an embodied form (Prakṛti). The term is often translated as soul, but is better translated as "Self", as it solely refers to pure consciousness or witness-consciousness, beyond identification with phenomena. In order to attain moksha (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Adi Shankara</span> 8th-century Indian Hindu philosopher and theologian

Adi Shankara, also called Adi Shankaracharya, was an 8th-century Indian Vedic scholar and teacher (acharya). His works present a harmonizing reading of the sastras, with liberating knowledge of the self at its core, synthesizing the Advaita Vedanta teachings of his time.

In Buddhism, the term anattā or anātman is the doctrine of "non-self" – that no unchanging, permanent self or essence can be found in any phenomenon. While often interpreted as a doctrine denying the existence of a self, anatman is more accurately described as a strategy to attain non-attachment by recognizing everything as impermanent, while staying silent on the ultimate existence of an unchanging essence. In contrast, Hinduism asserts the existence of Atman as pure awareness or witness-consciousness, "reify[ing] consciousness as an eternal self."

Vedanta, also known as Uttara Mīmāṃsā, is one of the six orthodox (āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. The word "Vedanta" means "conclusion of the Vedas", and encompasses the ideas that emerged from, or were aligned with, the speculations and enumerations contained in the Upanishads, with a focus on knowledge and liberation. Vedanta developed into many schools, all of which base their ideas on the authority of a common group of texts called the Prasthānatrayī, translated as "the three sources": the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras and the Bhagavad Gita.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Advaita Vedanta</span> School of Hindu philosophy; a classic path to spiritual realization

Advaita Vedanta is a school of Hindu philosophy and a Hindu sādhanā, a path of spiritual discipline and experience. In a narrow sense it refers to the oldest extant scholarly tradition of the orthodox Hindu school Vedānta, written in Sanskrit; in a broader sense it refers to a popular, syncretic tradition, blending Vedānta with other traditions and producing works in vernacular.

Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is a set among the Indian philosophical systems that developed alongside the religion of Hinduism and emerged during the iron age and classical periods of India. In Indian tradition, the word used for philosophy is Darshana, from the Sanskrit root drish.

Nondualism includes a number of philosophical and spiritual traditions that emphasize the absence of fundamental duality or separation in existence. This viewpoint questions the boundaries conventionally imposed between self and other, mind and body, observer and observed, and other dichotomies that shape our perception of reality. As a field of study, nondualism delves into the concept of nonduality and the state of nondual awareness, encompassing a diverse array of interpretations across traditions, not limited to a particular cultural or religious context; instead, nondualism emerges as a central teaching across various traditions, inviting individuals to examine reality beyond the confines of dualistic thinking.

Ātman, attā or attan in Buddhism is the concept of self, and is found in Buddhist literature's discussion of the concept of non-self (Anatta). Most Buddhist traditions and texts reject the premise of a permanent, unchanging atman.

In Hindu philosophy, turiya, also referred to as chaturiya, chaturtha, is the true self (atman) beyond the three common states of consciousness. It is postulated in several Upanishads and explicated in Gaudapada's Mandukya Karika.

<i>Mandukya Upanishad</i> One of the ancient Sanskrit scriptures of Hinduism

The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad is the shortest of all the Upanishads, and is assigned to Atharvaveda. It is listed as number 6 in the Muktikā canon of 108 Upanishads.

<i>Smarta</i> tradition Tradition in Hinduism linked to Advaita Vedanta

The Smartatradition, also called Smartism, is a movement in Hinduism that developed and expanded with the Puranas genre of literature. It reflects a synthesis of four philosophical strands, namely Uttara Mīmāṃsā, Advaita, Yoga, and theism. The Smarta tradition rejects theistic sectarianism, and is notable for the domestic worship of five shrines with five deities, all treated as equal – Ganesha, Shiva, Shakti, Vishnu and Surya. The Smarta tradition contrasted with the older Shrauta tradition, which was based on elaborate rituals and rites. There has been a considerable overlap in the ideas and practices of the Smarta tradition with other significant historic movements within Hinduism, namely Shaivism, Brahmanism, Vaishnavism, and Shaktism.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ajātivāda</span> The Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death

Ajātivāda (अजातिवाद) is the fundamental philosophical doctrine of the Advaita Vedanta philosopher Gaudapada. According to Gaudapada, the Absolute is not subject to birth, change and death. The Absolute is aja, the unborn eternal. The empirical world of appearances is considered unreal, and not absolutely existent.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Gaudapada</span> Medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar

Gauḍapāda, also referred as Gauḍapādācārya, was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the Advaita Vedanta school of Hindu philosophy. While details of his biography are uncertain, his ideas inspired others such as Adi Shankara who called him a Paramaguru.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Brahmā (Buddhism)</span> Dharma protector and deity in Buddhism

Brahmā is a leading God (deva) and heavenly king in Buddhism. He is considered as a protector of teachings (dharmapala), and he is never depicted in early Buddhist texts as a creator god. In Buddhist tradition, it was the deity Brahma Sahampati who appeared before the Buddha and invited him to teach, once the Buddha attained enlightenment.

<i>Brahman</i> Metaphysical concept, unchanging Ultimate Reality in Hinduism

In Hinduism, Brahman connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality in the universe. In major schools of Hindu philosophy, it is the immaterial, efficient, formal and final cause of all that exists. It is the pervasive, infinite, eternal truth, consciousness and bliss which does not change, yet is the cause of all changes. Brahman as a metaphysical concept refers to the single binding unity behind diversity in all that exists.

Anātman in Sanskrit means that "which is different from atman" or "non-self". In Hinduism, the former definition is found in some texts, while in Buddhism, anātman or anattā means non-self.

Anutpāda is a Buddhist concept for the absence of an origin. In Mahayana Buddhism, "anutpāda" is often symbolized by the letter A.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Advaita Vedanta</span>

Advaita Vedānta is the oldest extant tradition of Vedānta, and one of the six orthodox (āstika) Hindu philosophies. Its history may be traced back to the start of the Common Era, but takes clear shape in the 6th-7th century CE, with the seminal works of Gaudapada, Maṇḍana Miśra, and Shankara, who is considered by tradition and Orientalist Indologists to be the most prominent exponent of the Advaita Vedānta, though the historical fame and cultural influence of Shankara grew only centuries later, particularly during the era of the Muslim invasions and consequent reign of the Indian subcontinent. The living Advaita Vedānta tradition in medieval times was influenced by, and incorporated elements from, the yogic tradition and texts like the Yoga Vasistha and the Bhagavata Purana. In the 19th century, due to the interplay between western views and Indian nationalism, Advaita came to be regarded as the paradigmatic example of Hindu spirituality, despite the numerical dominance of theistic Bkakti-oriented religiosity. In modern times, its views appear in various Neo-Vedānta movements.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 Biderman 1978, pp. 405–413.
  2. ↑ N.V. Isaeva (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press, pages 12-14
  3. ↑ Sharma 2007, p. 6.
  4. ↑ Deutsch 1988, p. 4.
  5. ↑ Lopez 2001, p. 239.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Comans 2000, pp. 88–93.
  7. 1 2 Isaeva 1993, pp. 60, 145–154.
  8. 1 2 Ingalls 1954 , pp. 291–306
  9. ↑ Isaeva 1993, pp. 12–14, 145–154.
  10. 1 2 3 Isaeva 1993, p. 172.
  11. 1 2 3 Deutsch & Dalvi 2004, pp. 126, 157.
  12. ↑ Murti 1983, p. 339.
  13. ↑ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, pp. 351–352.
  14. ↑ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pp. 2–3
  15. ↑ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, p. 354.
  16. ↑ David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 22, Issue 1, pp. 65–74
  17. ↑ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pp. 1–2
  18. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Whaling 1979, pp. 1–42.
  19. ↑ Grimes 1998, pp. 684–686.
  20. ↑ Sharma 2000, pp. 60–63.
  21. ↑ Helmuth Von Glasenapp (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society, pages 2-3, Quote: "Vedanta and Buddhism have lived side by side for such a long time that obviously they must have influenced each other. The strong predilection of the Indian mind for a doctrine of universal unity has led the representatives of Mahayana to conceive Samsara and Nirvana as two aspects of the same and single true reality; for Nagarjuna the empirical world is a mere appearance, as all dharmas, manifest in it, are perishable and conditioned by other dharmas, without having any independent existence of their own. Only the indefinable "Voidness" (Sunyata) to be grasped in meditation, and realized in Nirvana, has true reality [in Buddhism]".
  22. ↑ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, p. 362.
  23. 1 2 Muller-Ortega 2010, p. 25.
  24. ↑ Muller-Ortega 2010, p. 26.
  25. ↑ Kalupahana 1994, p. 206.
  26. ↑ Sarma 2007, pp. 145–147.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 TRV Murti (1955), The central philosophy of Buddhism, Routledge (2008 Reprint), ISBN   978-0-415-46118-4, pp. 114–115
  28. ↑ TRV Murti (1955), The central philosophy of Buddhism, Routledge (2008 Reprint), ISBN   978-0-415-46118-4, p. 116
  29. 1 2 3 4 Potter 1981, p. 105.
  30. ↑ Comans 2000, p. 2.
  31. 1 2 3 4 5 Plott 2000, pp. 285–288.
  32. ↑ Potter 1981, p. 81.
  33. 1 2 Raju 1992, p. 177.
  34. ↑ Kochumuttom 1999, p. 1.
  35. ↑ Kochumuttom 1999, p. 5.
  36. ↑ Sarma 2007, pp. 126, 143–144.
  37. ↑ Bhattacharya 1943, p. 49.
  38. ↑ Renard 2010, p. 157.
  39. ↑ Comans 2000, pp. 35–36.
  40. ↑ Raju 1992, pp. 177–178.
  41. ↑ Gaudapada, Devanathan Jagannathan, University of Toronto, IEP
  42. ↑ Dasgupta & Mohanta 1998, pp. 349–352.
  43. ↑ Mudgal, S.G. (1975), Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal, New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass, p. 4
  44. ↑ Ninian Smart (1992), Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy. Brill, page 104
  45. ↑ Isaeva 1993, p. 174.
  46. ↑ Dasgupta 1997, p. 494.
  47. ↑ S Mudgal (1975), Advaita of Shankara: A Reappraisal, Motilal Banarasidass, page 175
  48. ↑ Julius Lipner (1986), The Face of Truth: A Study of Meaning and Metaphysics in the Vedantic Theology of Rāmānuja, State University of New York Press, ISBN   978-0887060397, pp. 120–123
  49. ↑ Anatta, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self")."
  50. 1 2 John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120801585, p. 63, Quote: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism".
  51. ↑ Dae-Sook Suh (1994), Korean Studies: New Pacific Currents, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN   978-0824815981, p. 171
  52. ↑ Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad (2013), Situating the Elusive Self of Advaita Vedanta. In: Mark Siderits, Evan Thompson, Dan Zahavi (eds.), Self, No Self?: Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions, Oxgord University Press, p. 235
  53. 1 2 [a] Anatta, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013), Quote: "Anatta in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman ("the self").";
    [b] Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, ISBN   978-0-7914-2217-5, p. 64, Quote: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";
    [c] Edward Roer (Translator), Shankara's Introduction , p. 2, at Google Books to Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad, pp. 2–4;
    [d] Katie Javanaud (2013), Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?, Philosophy Now;
    [e] David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pp. 65–74;
    [f] KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, ISBN   978-8120806191, pp. 246–249, from note 385 onwards;
    [g] Bruno Nagel (2000), Roy Perrett (editor), Philosophy of Religion: Indian Philosophy, Routledge, ISBN   978-0815336112, p. 33, Quote: "The dispute with Buddhists, who do not accept an imperishable Self, gives the Atman schools [Vedanta, Kashmir Shaivism] a chance to articulate the intellectual aspects of their way to meditative liberation".
  54. ↑ Helen J Baroni (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism, Rosen Publishing, ISBN   978-0823922406, p. 14
  55. ↑ David Loy (1982), Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta: Are Nirvana and Moksha the Same?, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 23, Issue 1, pp. 65–74
  56. 1 2 Jayatilleke 1963, p. 39.
  57. ↑ Mackenzie 2012.
  58. ↑ Paul Williams (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Routledge. pp. 104, 125–127. ISBN   978-1-134-25056-1.
  59. ↑ S. K. Hookham (1991). The Buddha Within: Tathagatagarbha Doctrine According to the Shentong Interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga. State University of New York Press. pp. 100–104. ISBN   978-0-7914-0357-0.
  60. ↑ Paul Williams (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Routledge. pp. 107, 112. ISBN   978-1-134-25056-1.
  61. ↑ S. K. Hookham (1991). The Buddha Within: Tathagatagarbha Doctrine According to the Shentong Interpretation of the Ratnagotravibhaga. State University of New York Press. p. 96. ISBN   978-0-7914-0357-0.
  62. ↑ Paul Williams (2008). Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations. Routledge. pp. 104–105, 108–109. ISBN   978-1-134-25056-1. (...) it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics.
  63. ↑ Merv Fowler (1999). Buddhism: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. pp. 101–102. ISBN   978-1-898723-66-0.[ permanent dead link ]
  64. ↑ John W. Pettit (1999). Mipham's Beacon of Certainty: Illuminating the View of Dzogchen, the Great Perfection. Simon and Schuster. pp. 48–49. ISBN   978-0-86171-157-4.
  65. ↑ Grimes 1996, p. 238.
  66. ↑ D Sharma (1966). "Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic — Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi". Indo-Iranian Journal . 9 (4): 291–300.
  67. ↑ John Clayton (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN   978-0521126274, p. 54
  68. ↑ Alex Wayman (1999), A Millennium of Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120816466, pp. xix–xx
  69. ↑ Puligandla 1997, pp. 49–50, 60–62.
  70. 1 2 Christopher Bartley (2011). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 90–91. ISBN   978-1-84706-449-3.
  71. 1 2 3 Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe; Alexander Wynne (2000). Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition. Routledge. p. 92. ISBN   0-415-20701-0.
  72. ↑ Puligandla 1997, pp. 40–50, 60–62, 97.
  73. ↑ Kalupahana 1994.
  74. ↑ Christopher Bartley (2011). An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Bloomsbury Academic. pp. 90–91, 96, 204–208. ISBN   978-1-84706-449-3.
  75. ↑ Renard 2010, p. 130.
  76. 1 2 3 Ingalls 1954, p. 302.
  77. ↑ Ingalls 1954, p. 304.
  78. ↑ Ingalls 1954, pp. 301–305.
  79. ↑ Ingalls 1954.
  80. ↑ Ingalls 1954, pp. 299–301, 303–304.
  81. ↑ Ingalls 1954, pp. 302–303.
  82. ↑ Ingalls 1954, p. 303.
  83. ↑ Nicholson 2010, p. 152.
  84. ↑ Bhāvaviveka (2008). Bhāviveka and his Buddhist opponents: chapters 4 and 5 of Bhāviveka's Madhyamakahṛdayakārikaḥ with Tarkajvāla commentary. Translated by Malcolm David Eckel. Harvard University Press. pp. 7–8. ISBN   9780674032743.
  85. 1 2 Nicholson 2010, pp. 152–153.
  86. ↑ King 1995, p. 183.
  87. 1 2 Guy Newland (1992). The Two Truths: In the Madhyamika Philosophy of the Gelukba Order of Tibetan Buddhism. Shambhala. p. 260 note 62. ISBN   978-1-55939-778-0.
  88. 1 2 Daniel Cozort (1990). Unique Tenets of The Middle Way Consequence School: The Systematization of the Philosophy of the Indian Buddhist Prāsaṅgika-Mādhyamika School. Shambhala. pp. 74–75 with footnote 4. ISBN   978-1-55939-997-5.
  89. ↑ Peter Paul Kakol (2009). Emptiness and Becoming: Integrating Mādhyamika Buddhism and Process Philosophy. Shambala. pp. 108–109. ISBN   978-81-246-0519-6. He also charges that Candrakirti was a crypto-Vedantist, (...)

Sources

Printed sources

  • Bhattacharya, Vidhushekhara (1943), Gauḍapādakārikā, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Biderman, Shlomo (1978). "Śankara and the Buddhists". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 6 (4). doi:10.1007/bf00218430. S2CID   170754201.
  • Chatterjea, Tara (2003), Knowledge and Freedom in Indian Philosophy, Lexington Books
  • Clayton, John (2010), Religions, Reasons and Gods: Essays in Cross-cultural Philosophy of Religion, Cambridge University Press, ISBN   978-0521126274
  • Comans, Michael (2000), The Method of Early Advaita Vedānta: A Study of Gauḍapāda, Śaṅkara, Sureśvara, and Padmapāda, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Dasgupta, Surendranath (1975), A history of Indian philosophy. Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
  • Dasgupta, S.N. (1997). History of Indian Philosophy, Volume 1.
  • Dasgupta, Sanghamitra; Mohanta, Dilip Kumar (1998). "Some reflections on the relation between Sankara and Buddhism". Indian Philosophical Quarterly. XXV (3, July 1998).
  • Deutsch, Eliot (1973), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN   978-0-8248-0271-4
  • Deutsch, Eliot (1988), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN   0-88706-662-3
  • Deutsch, Eliot; Dalvi, Rohit (2004), The Essential Vedanta: A New Source Book of Advaita Vedanta, World Wisdom, Inc., ISBN   9780941532525
  • Fasching, Wolfgang (2011), "'I Am of the Nature of Seeing': Phenomenological Reflections on the Indian Notion of Witness-Consciousness", in Siderits, M.; Thompson, E.; Zahavi, D. (eds.), Self, No Self? Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions, Oxford: Oxford University Press
  • Fasching, Wolfgang (2021), "Prakāśa. A few reflections on the Advaitic understanding of consciousness as presence and its relevance for philosophy of mind", Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences, Springer, 20 (4): 679–701, doi: 10.1007/s11097-020-09690-2 , S2CID   225385862
  • Ganeri, Jonardon (2019), Indian Philosophy: A Reader, Routledge, ISBN   9781000728033
  • Garfield, Jay L.; Priest, Graham (2003). "Nagarjuna and the Limits of Thought" (PDF). Philosophy East & West. 53 (1 (January)): 1–21.
  • Glasenapp, Helmuth Von (1995), Vedanta & Buddhism: A comparative study, Buddhist Publication Society
  • Grimes, John (1998), "Book reviews: Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism: The Mahayana Context of the Gaudapadiya-karika, by Richard King. SUNY Press (1995)", Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 66 (3), doi:10.1093/jaarel/66.3.684, archived from the original on 10 July 2012
  • Grimes, John A. (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, SUNY Press
  • Indich, William (2000), Consciousness in Advaita Vedanta, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120812512
  • Ingalls, Daniel H. H. (January 1954). "Samkara's Arguments against the Buddhists". Philosophy East and West. 3 (4): 291–306. doi:10.2307/1397287.
  • Isaeva, N.V. (1993), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, SUNY Press
  • Jayatilleke, K.N. (1963), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge (PDF) (1st ed.), London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd., archived from the original (PDF) on 11 September 2015
  • Kalupahana, David J. (1994), A history of Buddhist philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
  • King, Richard (1995), Early Advaita Vedānta and Buddhism: The Mahāyāna Context of the Gauḍapādīya-kārikā, SUNY Press
  • Kochumuttom, Thomas A. (1999), A buddhist Doctrine of Experience. A New Translation and Interpretation of the Works of Vasubandhu the Yogacarin, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Lopez, Donald S. (2001), The Story of Buddhism, HarperCollins
  • Loy, David (1982). "Enlightenment in Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta". International Philosophical Quarterly. 22 (1): 65–74. doi:10.5840/ipq19822217.
  • Mackenzie, Matthew (2012), "Luminosity, Subjectivity, and Temporality: An Examination of Buddhist and Advaita views of Consciousness", in Kuznetsova, Irina; Ganeri, Jonardon; Ram-Prasad, Chakravarthi (eds.), Hindu and Buddhist Ideas in Dialogue: Self and No-Self, Routledge
  • Menezes, Walter (2017), Exploring Ātman from the Perspective of the Vivekacūḍāmaṇi, Springer
  • Menon, Sangeetha (2012), Advaita Vedanta, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
  • Muller-Ortega, Paul E. (2010), Triadic Heart of Siva: Kaula Tantricism of Abhinavagupta in the Non-Dual Shaivism of Kashmir, SUNY press
  • Murti, TRV (1955), The central philosophy of Buddhism, Routledge (2008 Reprint), ISBN   978-0-415-46118-4
  • Murti, T.R.V. (1983), "The World and the Individual in Indian Religious Thought", Studies in Indian Thought: Collected Papers of Prof. T.R.V. Murti, Motilal Banarsidass Publ.
  • Nicholson, Andrew J. (2010), Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History, Columbia University Press
  • Nikhilananda, Swami (2008), The Upanishads, A New Translation, Volume 2. Kolkata: Advaita Ashrama, ISBN   978-81-7505-302-1
  • Plott, John (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Patristic-Sutra period (325 - 800 AD), Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120805507
  • Potter, Karl. H. (1981), Gaudapada, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta up to Śaṃkara and his pupils, Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   81-208-0310-8
  • Potter, Karl (1977), Meaning and Truth in Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Volume 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   81-208-0309-4
  • Puligandla, Ramakrishna (1997), Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy, New Delhi: D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd., ISBN   9788124600870
  • Raju, P.T. (1992) [1971], The Philosophical Traditions of India, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Private Limited
  • Renard, Philip (2010), Non-Dualisme. De directe bevrijdingsweg, Cothen: Uitgeverij Juwelenschip
  • Sarma, Candradhara (2007), The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120813120
  • Sharma, Arvind (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120820272
  • Sharma, B. N. Krishnamurti (2000), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, 3rd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass Pvt. Ltd.(2008 Reprint), ISBN   978-8120815759
  • Sharma, Chandradhar (1996), The Advaita Tradition in Indian Philosophy, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Sharma, D (1966). "Epistemological negative dialectics of Indian logic, Abhāva versus Anupalabdhi". Indo-Iranian Journal. 9 (4): 291–300. doi:10.1163/000000066790086530.
  • Suzuki, Daisetz Teitarō (1999), Studies in the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
  • Wayman, Alex (1999), A Millennium of Buddhist Logic, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN   978-8120816466
  • Whaling, Frank (1979). "Shankara and Buddhism". Journal of Indian Philosophy. 7 (1). doi:10.1007/BF02561251. S2CID   170613052.
  • Wood, Thomas E. (1992), The Māṇḍūkya Upaniṣad and the Āgama Śāstra: An Investigation Into the Meaning of the Vedānta

Web-sources

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.