Carex

Last updated

Carex
Carex diversity in south-west France.jpg
Various species of sedges
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Cyperaceae
Genus: Carex
L.
Type species
Carex hirta
L.   [1]
Diversity
c. 1800 species
Areal carex.jpg
Global distribution of Carex (green)
Synonyms [2]
List
    • AgistronRaf.
    • AmmorrhizaEhrh.
    • AnithistaRaf.
    • ArchaeocarexBörner
    • BaeochortusEhrh.
    • BitteriaBörner
    • BlysmocarexN.A.Ivanova
    • CallistachysHeuff.
    • CaricellaEhrh.
    • CaricinaSt.-Lag.
    • CaricinellaSt.-Lag.
    • ChionanthulaBörner
    • ChordorrhizaEhrh.
    • CobresiaPers.
    • ColeachyronJ.Gay ex Boiss.
    • CryptoglochinHeuff.
    • CymophyllusMack. ex Britton & A.Br.
    • CyperoidesSég.
    • DapedostachysBörner
    • DesmiograstisBörner
    • DeweyaRaf.
    • DiemisaRaf.
    • DiplocarexHayata
    • DorneraHeuff. ex Schur
    • DrymeiaEhrh.
    • EchinochlaeniaBörner
    • EdritriaRaf.
    • ElynaSchrad.
    • FacolosRaf.
    • ForexetaRaf.
    • FroelichiaWulfen
    • GenersichiaHeuff.
    • HeleonastesEhrh.
    • HemicarexBenth.
    • HeuffeliaOpiz
    • HolmiaBörner
    • HomalostachysBoeckeler
    • IthetaRaf.
    • KobresiaWilld.
    • KobriaSt.-Lag.
    • KolermaRaf.
    • KuekenthaliaBörner
    • LamprochlaeniaBörner
    • LeptostachysEhrh.
    • LeptovigneaBörner
    • LeucoglochinHeuff.
    • LimivasculumBörner
    • LimonaetesEhrh.
    • LoncoperisRaf.
    • LoxanisaRaf.
    • LoxotremaRaf.
    • ManochlaeniaBörner
    • MaukschiaHeuff.
    • MeltremaRaf.
    • NeilreichiaKotula
    • NeskizaRaf.
    • OlamblisRaf.
    • OlotremaRaf.
    • OnkermaRaf.
    • OsculisaRaf.
    • PhaeolorumEhrh.
    • PhyllostachysTorr.
    • PhysiglochisNeck.
    • PolyglochinEhrh.
    • ProteocarpusBörner
    • PseudocarexMiq.
    • PsyllophoraEhrh.
    • PtacoseiaEhrh.
    • RhaptocalymmaBorrer
    • RhynchoperaBörner
    • SchelhammeriaMoench
    • SchoenoxiphiumNees
    • TemnemisRaf.
    • ThysanocarexBörner
    • TrasusGray
    • UlvaAdans.
    • UnciniaPers.
    • VesicarexSteyerm.
    • VignanthaSchur
    • VigneaP.Beauv. ex T.Lestib.
    • VignidulaBörner

Carex is a vast genus of nearly 2,000 species [3] of grass-like plants in the family Cyperaceae, commonly known as sedges (or seg, in older books). Other members of the family Cyperaceae are also called sedges, however those of genus Carex may be called true sedges, and it is the most species-rich genus in the family. The study of Carex is known as caricology.

Contents

Description

All species of Carex are perennial, [4] although some species, such as C. bebbii and C. viridula can fruit in their first year of growth, and may not survive longer. [5] They typically have rhizomes, stolons or short rootstocks, but some species grow in tufts (caespitose). [4] The culm – the flower-bearing stalk – is unbranched and usually erect. [4] It is usually distinctly triangular in section. [4]

The leaves of Carex comprise a blade, which extends away from the stalk, and a sheath, which encloses part of the stalk. [4] The blade is normally long and flat, but may be folded, inrolled, channelled or absent. [4] The leaves have parallel veins and a distinct midrib. Where the blade meets the culm there is a structure called the ligule. [4] The colour of foliage may be green, red or brown, and "ranges from fine and hair-like, sometimes with curled tips, to quite broad with a noticeable midrib and sometimes razor sharp edges". [6]

In this Carex panicea, the upper spike contains male flowers, and the lower spike contains female flowers. Carex panicea kz.jpg
In this Carex panicea , the upper spike contains male flowers, and the lower spike contains female flowers.

The flowers of Carex are small and are combined into spikes, which are themselves combined into a larger inflorescence. The spike typically contains many flowers, but can hold as few as one in some species. [4] Almost all Carex species are monoecious; each flower is either male (staminate) or female (pistillate). [4] A few species are dioecious. Sedges exhibit diverse arrangements of male and female flowers. Often, the lower spikes are entirely pistillate and upper spikes staminate, with one or more spikes in between having pistillate flowers near the base and staminate flowers near the tip. [7] In other species, all spikes are similar. In that case, they may have male flowers above and female flowers below (androgynous) or female flowers above and male flowers below (gynecandrous). In relatively few species, the arrangement of flowers is irregular.

The defining structure of the genus Carex is the bottle-shaped bract surrounding each female flower. [7] This structure is called the perigynium or utricle, a modified prophyll. It is typically extended into a "rostrum" or beak, which is often divided at the tip (bifid) into two teeth. [7] The shape, venation, and vestiture (hairs) of the perigynium are important structures for distinguishing Carex species.

The fruit of Carex is a dry, one-seeded indehiscent achene or nut [4] which grows within the perigynium. Perigynium features aid in fruit dispersal.

Ecology and distribution

Carex species are found across most of the world, albeit with few species in tropical lowlands, and relatively few in sub-Saharan Africa. [5] Most (but not all) sedges are found in wetlands – such as marshes, calcareous fens, bogs and other peatlands, pond and stream banks, riparian zones, and even ditches. [7] They are one of the dominant plant groups in arctic and alpine tundra, and in wetland habitats with a water depth of up to 50 cm (20 in). [5]

Taxonomy and cytogenetics

The genus Carex was established by Carl Linnaeus in his work Species Plantarum in 1753, and is one of the largest genera of flowering plants. [8] Estimates of the number of species vary from about 1100 to almost 2000. [5] Carex displays the most dynamic chromosome evolution of all flowering plants. Chromosome numbers range from n = 6 to n = 66, and over 100 species are known to show variation in chromosome number within the species, with differences of up to 10 chromosomes between populations. [9]

The genomes of Carex kokanica, Carex parvula and Carex littledalei have been sequenced. [10] [11]

Carex has been divided into subgenera in a number of ways. The most influential was Georg Kükenthal's classification using four subgenera – Carex, Vignea, Indocarex and Primocarex – based primarily on the arrangement of the male and female flowers. [5] There has been considerable debate about the status of these four groups, with some species being transferred between groups and some authors, such as Kenneth Kent Mackenzie, eschewing the subgenera altogether and dividing the genus directly into sections. [5] The genus is now divided into around four subgenera, some of which may not, however, be monophyletic: [12]

Fossil record

Several fossil fruits of two Carex species have been described from middle Miocene strata of the Fasterholt area near Silkeborg in Central Jutland, Denmark. [14]

Uses

Ornamental

Carex species and cultivars are popular in horticulture, particularly in shady positions. [15] [16] Native species are used in wildland habitat restoration projects, natural landscaping, and in sustainable landscaping as drought-tolerant grass replacements for lawns and garden meadows. [17] Some require damp or wet conditions, others are relatively drought-tolerant. Propagation is by seed or division in spring. [18]

The cultivars Carex elata 'Aurea' (Bowles' golden sedge) [19] and Carex oshimensis 'Evergold' [20] have received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Other uses

A mix of dried specimens of several species of Carex (including Carex vesicaria ) have a history of being used as thermal insulation in footwear (such as nutukas used by Sámi people [21] ). Sennegrass is one of the names for such mixes. [21] During the first human expedition to the South Pole in 1911, such a mix were used in skaller, when camps had been set (after each stretch of travelling had been completed). [22] Carsten Borchgrevink of the British Antarctic Expedition 1898-1900 reported “I found the Lapps method of never using socks in their Finn boots answered well. Socks are never used in Finnmarken in winter time, but ‘senne grass’ which they, of course, had a special method of arranging in the 'komager' (Finn boots) … if you get wet feet while wearing the grass in the ‘komager’ you will be warmer than ever, as the fresh grass will, by the moisture and the heat of your feet, in a way start to burn or produce its own heat by spontaneous combustion. The great thing seems to be to arrange the grass properly in the boots, and although we all tried to imitate the Finns in their skill at this work, none of us felt as warm on our feet as when they had helped us.” [23]

Species serve as a food source for numerous animals, [24] and some are used as a livestock hay. [25] [26]

Use by Native Americans

The Blackfoot put carex in moccasins to protect the feet during winter. [27] The Cherokee use an infusion of the leaf to "check bowels". [28] The Ohlone use the roots of many species for basketry. [29] The Goshute use the root as medicine. [30] The Jemez consider the plant sacred and use it in the kiva. [31] The Klamath people weave the leaves into mats, use the juice of the pith as a beverage, eat the fresh stems for food and use the tuberous base of the stem for food. [32] The indigenous people of Mendocino County, California use the rootstocks to make baskets and rope. [33] The indigenous people of Montana also weave the leaves into mats and use the young stems as food. [34] The Navajo of Kayenta, Arizona grind the seeds into mush and eat them. [35] The Oregon Paiute weave it to make spoons. [36] The Pomo use the roots to make baskets, [37] [38] and use it to tend fishing traps. [39] They also use it to make torches. [39] The Coast Salish use the leaves to make baskets and twine. [40] The Songhees eat the leaves to induce abortions. [40] The Nlaka'pamux used the leaves as brushes for cleaning things and use the leaves as forage for their livestock. [41] The Wailaki weave the roots and leaves into baskets and use the leaves to weave mats. [42] The Yuki people use the large roots to make baskets. [43]

Related Research Articles

<i>Rhynchospora alba</i> Species of plant

Rhynchospora alba, the white beak-sedge, is a plant in the sedge family, Cyperaceae. It is a tufted herbaceous perennial around 50 cm tall, with white inflorescences that flower in August. The fruit of the sedge is a small achene with a characteristic beak-like cap. It is dispersed by wind or falls by gravity, leading to individuals existing in tight clumps. The species favours wet, acidic and nutrient poor soils, thriving in Sphagnum-dominated bogs, but also peaty grasslands. As such, it is often used as a positive indicator for bog and mire ecosystem health.

<i>Carex angustata</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex angustata is a species of sedge known by the common name widefruit sedge. It is native to the western United States from Washington and Idaho to California, where it grows in wet meadows and on streambanks.

<i>Carex nebrascensis</i> Species of sedge

Carex nebrascensis is a species of sedge known as Nebraska sedge.

<i>Carex obnupta</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex obnupta is a species of sedge known by the common name slough sedge. It is native to western North America from British Columbia to California where it grows abundantly in wet, often saline habitat such as wetlands. The plant produces upright, angled stems approaching 1.2 meters in maximum height, growing in beds or colonies from rhizome networks. The inflorescence is a cluster of flower spikes accompanied by a long leaflike bract. The pistillate spikes and sometimes the staminate spikes dangle on peduncles. The fruit is coated by a hard, tough, shiny perigynium which is generally dark in color.

<i>Carex rossii</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex rossii, commonly known as Ross's sedge, is a hardy species of sedge that is often a pioneer species in areas with little or no established vegetation, or in places where disturbance has occurred. Ross's sedge grows in a variety of habitats throughout much of western North America, from Alaska to Ontario, south to New Mexico and California. It flowers in May and June.

<i>Carex lutea</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex lutea is a rare species of sedge known by the common names golden sedge and sulphur sedge. It is endemic to North Carolina, where it is known only from Pender and Onslow Counties in the Cape Fear River watershed. There are nine populations. The plant was discovered in 1991 and described to science as a new species in 1994, and it has not been thoroughly studied nor completely surveyed yet. Its rarity was obvious by 2002, however, when it was federally listed as an endangered species.

<i>Carex specuicola</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex specuicola is a rare species of sedge known by the common name Navajo sedge. It is native to a small section of the Colorado Plateau in the United States, its distribution straddling the border between Utah and Arizona, and completely within the Navajo Nation. There are several populations but they are limited to a specific type of habitat. The plants grow from the sides of steep, often vertical cliffs of red Navajo Sandstone, in areas where water trickles from the rock. It occurs at elevations between 5,700 and 6,000 feet, usually in shady spots. Though it is not a grass, the sedge grows in inconspicuous clumps resembling tufts of grass sticking out of the rock face. When the sedge was federally listed as a threatened species in 1985, it was known from only three populations in Coconino County, Arizona, with no more than 700 plants existing. The species has since been observed in northeastern Arizona and San Juan County, Utah.

Carex aboriginum is a species of sedge endemic to Idaho in the western United States, known as Indian Valley sedge. It was not observed in the wild between 1910, when it was first described, and 1999. Until its rediscovery, C. aboriginum was considered the only plant native to Idaho to have become extinct, and it remains one of the state's rarest and most endangered plant species.

<i>Carex <span style="font-style:normal;">subg.</span> Carex</i> Subgenus of sedges

Carex subg. Carex is a subgenus of the sedge genus Carex. It is the largest of the four traditionally recognised subgenera, containing around 1400 of the 2000 species in the genus. Its members are characterised by the presence of one or more exclusively male (staminate) terminal spikes, quite dissimilar in appearance from the lateral female (pistillate) spikes below. In most species, the female flowers have three stigmas, but a few species, including Carex nigra, have female flowers with only two stigmas.

<i>Carex lacustris</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex lacustris, known as lake sedge, is a tufted grass-like perennial of the sedge family (Cyperaceae), native to southern Canada and the northern United States. C. lacustris us an herbaceous surface-piercing plant that grows in water up to 50 cm (1.6 ft) deep, and grows 50–150 cm (1.6–4.9 ft) tall. It grows well in marshes and swampy woods of the boreal forest, along river and lake shores, in ditches, marshes, swamps, and other wetland habitat. It grows on muck, sedge peat, wet sand or silt, in filtered or full sunlight.

Carex porrecta is a plant species known from Costa Rica, Colombia, Venezuela and Ecuador. It is found in humid forests at elevations of 1,600–2,600 metres (5,200–8,500 ft).

Carex lemmonii, or Lemmon's sedge, is a plant in the sedge family, and is endemic to California. Carex albida is now considered a synonym, but was previously thought to be a separate species; such plants have the common name white sedge.

<i>Carex <span style="font-style:normal;">subg.</span> Vignea</i> Subgenus of sedges

Carex subg. Vignea is a subgenus of the sedge genus Carex, containing around 300 of the 2000 species in the genus. Its members are characterised by having bisexual, sessile spikes, where the female flowers have two stigmas each.

Carex micropoda is a species of sedge found in temperate and boreal regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

<i>Carex eburnea</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex eburnea, known as ivory sedge, ebony sedge, and bristleleaf or bristle-leaved sedge, is a small and slender sedge native to North America, from Alaska and Newfoundland south to central Mexico.

Carex hirtifolia, the pubescent sedge, is a species of sedge native to northeastern North America. It is the only species in Carex section Hirtifoliae. The entire plant is distinctively covered soft hairs.

<i>Carex rosea</i> Species of sedge

Carex rosea, the rosy sedge, is a flowering plant and part of the family Cyperaceae. Synonyms for Carex rosea include Carex concoluta, and Carex flaccidula. It is native to central and eastern North America and it exists in wet to dry soils. Carex rosea can be found in shores of streams and bottomlands, as well as ponds. It is known to have good adaptations to dry-shade locations. It is an evergreen plant which is easy to grow.

<i>Carex bicolor</i> Species of grass-like plant

Carex bicolor, the bicoloured sedge, is a species of sedge native to North America, Northern Europe and Northern Asia. The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the plant's conservation status as being of least concern because it has a widespread distribution and faces no particular threats.

Carex krausei, commonly known as Krause's sedge or carex de Krause in Canada, is a tussock-forming species of perennial sedge in the family Cyperaceae. It is native to subarctic areas of Greenland, Alaska, northern Canada and Russia.

<i>Carex bullata</i> Species of plant

Carex bullata is a tussock-forming species of perennial sedge in the family Cyperaceae. It is native to south eastern parts of Canada and eastern parts of the United States. It has the common name of the button sedge.

References

  1. ↑ Ilkka Kukkonen; Heikki Toivonen (1988). "Taxonomy of wetland carices". Aquatic Botany . 30 (1–2): 5–22. doi:10.1016/0304-3770(88)90003-4.
  2. ↑ "Carex L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved 7 July 2020.
  3. ↑ Andrew L. Hipp (2007). "Nonuniform processes of chromosome evolution in sedges (Carex: Cyperaceae)". Evolution . 61 (9): 2175–2194. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00183.x . PMID   17767589. S2CID   19514206.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Robert H. Mohlenbrock; Paul Wayne Nelson (1999). "Introduction". Sedges: Carex. Volume 14 of The Illustrated flora of Illinois. Southern Illinois University Press. pp. 3–7. ISBN   978-0-8093-2074-5.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Peter W. Ball; A. A. Reznicek (2002). "Carex Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 972. 1753; Gen. Pl. ed. 5, 420. 1754". Magnoliophyta: Commelinidae (in part): Cyperaceae. Flora of North America North of Mexico. Vol. 23. Oxford University Press. pp. 254–258. ISBN   978-0-19-515207-4.
  6. ↑ Amjad Almusaed (2010). Biophilic and Bioclimatic Architecture: Analytical Therapy for the Next Generation of Passive Sustainable Architecture. Springer. p. 52. ISBN   978-1-84996-534-7.
  7. 1 2 3 4 A. C. Jermy; D. A. Simpson; M. J. Y. Foley; M. S. Porter (2007). "General structure of Cyperaceae". Sedges of the British Isles. BSBI Handbook No. 1 (3rd ed.). Botanical Society of the British Isles. pp. 2–26. ISBN   978-0-901158-35-2.
  8. ↑ David G. Frodin (2004). "History and concepts of big plant genera". Taxon . 53 (3): 753–776. doi:10.2307/4135449. JSTOR   4135449.
  9. ↑ Andrew L. Hipp; Paul E. Rothrock; Eric H. Roalson (2009). "The evolution of chromosome arrangements in Carex (Cyperaceae)" (PDF). The Botanical Review . 75 (1): 96–109. doi:10.1007/s12229-008-9022-8. S2CID   4489708. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-02-13. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
  10. ↑ Can, Muyou; Wei, Wei; Zi, Hailing; Bai, Magaweng; Liu, Yunfei; Gao, Dan; Tu, Dengqunpei; Bao, Yuhong; Wang, Li; Chen, Shaofeng; Zhao, Xing; Qu, Guangpeng (2020-06-11). "Genome sequence of Kobresia littledalei, the first chromosome-level genome in the family Cyperaceae". Scientific Data. 7 (1): 175. doi:10.1038/s41597-020-0518-3. ISSN   2052-4463. PMC   7289886 . PMID   32528014.
  11. ↑ Qu, Guangpeng; Bao, Yuhong; Liao, Yangci; Liu, Can; Zi, Hailing; Bai, Magaweng; Liu, Yunfei; Tu, Dengqunpei; Wang, Li; Chen, Shaofeng; Zhou, Gang; Can, Muyou (2022-03-23). "Draft genomes assembly and annotation of Carex parvula and Carex kokanica reveals stress-specific genes". Scientific Reports. 12 (1): 4970. doi:10.1038/s41598-022-08783-z. ISSN   2045-2322. PMC   8943043 . PMID   35322069.
  12. 1 2 3 Julian R. Starr; Stephen A. Harris; David A. Simpson (2008). "Phylogeny of the unispicate taxa in Cyperaceae Tribe Cariceae II: the limits of Uncinia". In Robert F. C. Naczi; Bruce A. Ford (eds.). Sedges: Uses, Diversity, and Systematics of the Cyperaceae (PDF). Monographs in Systematic Botany. Vol. 180. Missouri Botanical Garden Press. ISBN   978-1-930723-72-6. Archived from the original (PDF proof) on 2017-11-10. Retrieved 2013-06-06.
  13. 1 2 3 Dai Lunkai; Liang Songyun; Zhang Shuren; Tang Yancheng; Tetsuo Koyama; Gordon C. Tucker. "33. Carex Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 972. 1753. 薹草属 tai cao shu". Acoraceae through Cyperaceae (PDF). Flora of China. Vol. 23. Harvard University Press. pp. 285–461.
  14. ↑ Angiosperm Fruits and Seeds from the Middle Miocene of Jutland (Denmark) by Else Marie Friis, The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters 24:3, 1985
  15. ↑ Judy Lowe (2012). "Carex". Tennessee & Kentucky Garden Guide: the Best Plants for a Tennessee or Kentucky Garden (2nd ed.). Cool Springs Press. p. 178. ISBN   978-1-59186-537-7.
  16. ↑ Frances Tenenbaum, ed. (2003). "Carex". Taylor's Encyclopedia of Garden Plants. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. pp. 74–75. ISBN   978-0-618-22644-3.
  17. ↑ "Grasses and grasslike plants". Native Sons. Retrieved May 22, 2010.
  18. ↑ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN   978-1-4053-3296-5.
  19. ↑ "Carex elata 'Aurea' (Bowles' golden sedge)". RHS. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  20. ↑ "Carex oshimensis 'Evergold'". RHS. Retrieved 12 April 2020.
  21. 1 2 "Bruk av land og vann i Finnmark i historisk perspektiv" [The use of land and water in Finnmark in historical perspective]. Norges Offentlige Utredninger (in Norwegian). Norwegian Ministry of Justice and Public Security. 1994 (21). 1994. Retrieved 29 April 2020.
  22. ↑ Ole Mathismoen (December 14, 2011). "Blir ikke varm i rått reinskinn". Aftenposten (in Norwegian). p. 17. ... skalder med senegress fra Kautokeino til bruk når de hadde slått leir.
  23. ↑ Borchgrevink, Carston (1980) [1901]. First on the Antarctic continent. Being an account of the British Antarctic Expedition, 1898 – 1900. London: Hurst and Co.
  24. ↑ Ronald W. Crites; E. Joe Middlebrooks; Sherwood C. Reed (2005). Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems. CRC Press. p. 263. ISBN   978-1-4200-2644-3.
  25. ↑ Heinjo Lahring (2003). Water and Wetland Plants of the Prairie Provinces. University of Regina Press. p. 114. ISBN   978-0-88977-162-8.
  26. ↑ Joel Greenberg (2010). Of Prairie, Woods, and Water: Two Centuries of Chicago Nature Writing. ReadHowYouWant.com. p. 206. ISBN   978-1-4596-0615-9.
  27. ↑ Johnston, Alex, 1987, Plants and the Blackfoot, Lethbridge, Alberta. Lethbridge Historical Society, page 22
  28. ↑ Hamel, Paul B. and Mary U. Chiltoskey, 1975, Cherokee Plants and Their Uses -- A 400 Year History, Sylva, N.C. Herald Publishing Co., page 54
  29. ↑ Bocek, Barbara R., 1984, Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California, Based on Collections by John P. Harrington, Economic Botany 38(2):240-255, page 255
  30. ↑ Chamberlin, Ralph V., 1911, The Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah, Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 2(5):331-405., page 365
  31. ↑ Cook, Sarah Louise, 1930, The Ethnobotany of Jemez Indians., University of New Mexico, M.A. Thesis, page 21
  32. ↑ Coville, Frederick V., 1897, Notes On The Plants Used By The Klamath Indians Of Oregon., Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 5(2):87-110, page 92
  33. ↑ Chestnut, V. K., 1902, Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California, Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295-408., page 314
  34. ↑ Blankinship, J. W., 1905, Native Economic Plants of Montana, Bozeman. Montana Agricultural College Experimental Station, Bulletin 56, page 9
  35. ↑ Wyman, Leland C. and Stuart K. Harris, 1951, The Ethnobotany of the Kayenta Navaho, Albuquerque. The University of New Mexico Press, page 16
  36. ↑ Mahar, James Michael., 1953, Ethnobotany of the Oregon Paiutes of the Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Reed College, B.A. Thesis, page 52
  37. ↑ Merriam, C. Hart, 1966, Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes, University of California Archaeological Research Facility, Berkeley, page 296
  38. ↑ Gifford, E. W., 1967, Ethnographic Notes on the Southwestern Pomo, Anthropological Records 25:10-15, page 11
  39. 1 2 Gifford, E. W., 1967, Ethnographic Notes on the Southwestern Pomo, Anthropological Records 25:10-15, page 12
  40. 1 2 Turner, Nancy Chapman and Marcus A. M. Bell, 1971, The Ethnobotany of the Coast Salish Indians of Vancouver Island, I and II, Economic Botany 25(1):63-104, 335-339, page 73
  41. ↑ Turner, Nancy J., Laurence C. Thompson and M. Terry Thompson et al., 1990, Thompson Ethnobotany: Knowledge and Usage of Plants by the Thompson Indians of British Columbia, Victoria. Royal British Columbia Museum, page 114
  42. ↑ Chestnut, V. K., 1902, Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County, California, Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295-408., page 315
  43. ↑ Curtin, L. S. M., 1957, Some Plants Used by the Yuki Indians ... II. Food Plants, The Masterkey 31:85-94, page 93

See also

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