Caspian tiger

Last updated
Caspian tiger
Panthera tigris virgata.jpg
Tiger from the Caucasus in Berlin Zoological Garden, 1899 [1]
Extinct  (1970)
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Carnivora
Suborder: Feliformia
Family: Felidae
Subfamily: Pantherinae
Genus: Panthera
Species: P. tigris
Subspecies: P. t. tigris
Population:†Caspian tiger
Panthera tigris virgata dis.png
Historical distribution

The Caspian tiger was a Panthera tigris tigris population native to eastern Turkey, northern Iran, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus around the Caspian Sea, Central Asia to northern Afghanistan and the Xinjiang region in western China. [2] Until the Middle Ages, it was also present in southern Russia. [3] It inhabited sparse forests and riverine corridors in this region until the 1970s. [1] This population was regarded as a distinct subspecies and assessed as extinct in 2003. [4]

Contents

Results of a phylogeographic analysis evinces that the Caspian and Siberian tiger populations shared a common continuous geographic distribution until the early 19th century. [5]

Some Caspian tigers were intermediate in size between Siberian and Bengal tigers. [3] [6] [7]

It was also called Balkhash tiger, Hyrcanian tiger, Turanian tiger, [4] and Mazandaran tiger. [8]

Taxonomy

Felis virgata was a scientific name used by Johann Karl Wilhelm Illiger in 1815 for the greyish tiger in the area surrounding the Caspian Sea. [9] Tigris septentrionalis was the scientific name proposed by Konstantin Satunin in 1904 for a skull and mounted skins of tigers that were killed in the Lankaran Lowland in the 1860s. [10] Felis tigris lecoqi and Felis tigris trabata were proposed by Ernst Schwarz in 1916 for tiger skins and skulls from Lop Nur and Ili River areas, respectively. [11]

In 1929, Reginald Innes Pocock subordinated the tiger to the genus Panthera . [12] For several decades, the Caspian tiger was considered a distinct tiger subspecies. [6] [13]

In 1999, the validity of several tiger subspecies was questioned. Most putative subspecies described in the 19th and 20th centuries were distinguished on basis of fur length and colouration, striping patterns and body size, hence characteristics that vary widely within populations. Morphologically, tigers from different regions vary little, and gene flow between populations in those regions is considered to have been possible during the Pleistocene. Therefore, it was proposed to recognize only two tiger subspecies as valid, namely P. t. tigris in mainland Asia, and P. t. sondaica in the Greater Sunda Islands and possibly in Sundaland. [14]

At the start of the 21st century, genetic studies were carried out using 20 tiger bone and tissue samples from museum collections and sequencing at least one segment of five mitochondrial genes. Results revealed a low amount of variability in the mitochondrial DNA in Caspian tigers; and that Caspian and Siberian tigers were remarkably similar, indicating that the Siberian tiger is the genetically closest living relative of the Caspian tiger. Phylogeographic analysis indicates that the common ancestor of Caspian and Siberian tigers colonized Central Asia via the Gansu−Silk Road region from eastern China less than 10,000 years ago, and subsequently traversed eastward to establish the Siberian tiger population in the Russian Far East. The Caspian and Siberian tigers were likely a single contiguous population until the early 19th century, but became isolated from another due to fragmentation and loss of habitat during the Industrial Revolution. [5]

In 2015, morphological, ecological and molecular traits of all putative tiger subspecies were analysed in a combined approach. Results support distinction of the two evolutionary groups continental and Sunda tigers. The authors proposed recognition of only two subspecies, namely P. t. tigris comprising the Bengal, Malayan, Indochinese, South Chinese, Siberian and Caspian tiger populations, and P. t. sondaica comprising the Javan, Bali and Sumatran tiger populations. Tigers in mainland Asia fall into two clades, namely a northern clade formed by the Caspian and Siberian tiger populations, and a southern clade formed by populations in remaining mainland Asia. [15]

In 2017, the Cat Specialist Group revised felid taxonomy and now recognizes the tiger populations in continental Asia as P. t. tigris. [2] However, a genetic study published in 2018 supported six monophyletic clades, with the Amur and Caspian tigers being distinct from other mainland Asian populations, thus supporting the traditional concept of six living subspecies. [16]

Characteristics

Babremazandaran.jpg
Skin of a Caspian tiger from Iran
Extantigerturanianwksciam97.jpg
Illustration of two Caspian tigers

Fur

Photographs of skins of Caspian and Siberian tigers indicate that the main background colour of the Caspian tiger's fur varied and was generally brighter and more uniform than that of the Siberian tiger. The stripes were narrower, fuller and more closely set than those of tigers from Manchuria. The colour of its stripes was a mixture of brown or cinnamon shades. Pure black patterns were invariably found only on head, neck, the middle of the back and at the tip of the tail. Angular patterns at the base of the tail were less developed than those of Far Eastern populations. The contrast between the summer and winter coats was sharp, though not to the same extent as in Far Eastern populations. The winter coat was paler, with less distinct patterns. The summer coat had a similar density and hair length to that of the Bengal tiger, though its stripes were usually narrower, longer and closer set. It had the thickest fur amongst tigers, possibly due its occurrence in the temperate parts of Asia. [3] [6] [7]

Size

Male Caspian tigers had a body length of 270–295 cm (106–116 in) and weighed 170–240 kg (370–530 lb); females measured 240–260 cm (94–102 in) in head-to-body and weighed 85–135 kg (187–298 lb). [6] Maximum skull length in males was 297–365.8 mm (11.69–14.40 in), while that of females was 195.7–255.5 mm (7.70–10.06 in). [3] Its occiput was broader than of the Bengal tiger. [14] It ranked among the largest extant cat species, along with the Siberian tiger. [6] [3] [17]

Some individuals attained exceptional sizes. In 1954, a tiger was killed near the Sumbar River in Kopet-Dag, whose stuffed skin was put on display in a museum in Ashgabat. Its head-to-body length was 2.25 m (7.4 ft). Its skull had a condylobasal length of about 305 mm (12.0 in), and zygomatic width of 205 mm (8.1 in). Its skull length was 385 mm (15.2 in), hence more than the known maximum of 365.8 mm (14.40 in) for this population, and slightly exceeding skull length of most Siberian tigers. [3] In Prishibinske, a tiger was killed in February 1899. Measurements after skinning revealed a body length of 270 cm (8.9 ft) between the pegs, plus a 90 cm (3.0 ft) long tail, giving it a total length of about 360 cm (11.8 ft). Measurements between the pegs of up to 2.95 m (9.7 ft) are known. [6] It was said to have been "a tiger of immense proportions" and "no smaller than the local horse breeds." It had rather long fur. [3]

Skull size and shape of Caspian tigers significantly overlap with and are almost indistinguishable from other tiger specimens in mainland Asia. [18]

Distribution and habitat

TurkmenbashiSea.jpg
Shore of the Türkmenbaşy Gulf at the Caspian Sea
TigrisRiver.JPG
The Tigris River outside Mosul in Iraq
Telecke jezero 1.JPG
Landscape in the Altai Mountains

Historical records show that the distribution of the tiger in the region of the Caspian Sea was not continuous but patchy, and associated with wetlands such as river basins, lake edges and sea shores. In the Middle Ages, it inhabited the steppes and forest steppes of Ukraine and southern Russia. [3] In the 19th century, tigers occurred in:

Its former distribution can be approximated by examining the distribution of ungulates in the region. [25] Wild boar was the numerically dominant ungulate in forested habitats, along watercourses, in reed beds and in thickets of the Caspian and Aral Seas. Where watercourses penetrated deep into desert areas, suitable wild pig and tiger habitat was often linear, only a few kilometers wide at most. Red and roe deer occurred in forests around the Black Sea to the western side and around the southern side of the Caspian Sea in a narrow belt of forest cover. Roe deer occurred in forested areas south of Lake Balkhash. Bactrian deer lived in the narrow belt of forest habitat on the southern border of the Aral Sea, and southward along the Syr-Darya and Amu Darya rivers. [3]

Throughout the late Pleistocene and Holocene, the Caspian tiger population was likely connected to the Bengal tiger population through corridors below elevations of 4,000 m (13,000 ft) in the Hindu Kush, before gene flow was interrupted by humans. [26]

Local extinction

Tiger killed in northern Iran, early 1940s Caspian tiger, north iran.jpg
Tiger killed in northern Iran, early 1940s

The demise of the Caspian tiger began with the Russian colonisation of Turkestan during the late 19th century. [27] Its extirpation was caused by several factors:

Until the early 20th century, the regular Russian army was used to clear predators from forests, around settlements, and potential agricultural lands. Until World War I, about 50 tigers were killed in the forests of Amu Darya and Piandj Rivers each year. High incentives were paid for tiger skins up to 1929. Wild pigs and deer, the prey base of tigers, were decimated by deforestation and subsistence hunting by the increasing human population along the rivers, supported by growing agricultural developments. [28] By 1910, cotton plants were estimated to occupy nearly one-fifth of Turkestan's arable land, with about one half located in the Fergana Valley. [29]

Last sightings

In Iraq, a tiger was killed near Mosul in 1887. [1] [19] In Georgia, the last known tiger was killed in 1922 near Tbilisi, after taking domestic livestock. [30] [1] In China, tigers disappeared from the Tarim River basin in Xinjiang in the 1920s. [30] [1] In Azerbaijan, the last known tiger was killed in 1932; however, tigers were allegedly sighted in later years in the Talysh Mountains. [31]

In Turkey, a pair of tigers was allegedly killed in the area of Selçuk in 1943. [32] Several tiger skins found in the early 1970s near Uludere indicated the presence of a tiger population in eastern Turkey. [33] [34] Questionnaire surveys conducted in this region revealed that one to eight tigers were killed each year until the mid-1980s, and that tigers likely had survived in the region until the early 1990s. Due to lack of interest, in addition to security and safety reasons, no further field surveys were carried out in the area. [20]

In Iran, one of the last known tigers was shot in Golestan National Park in 1953. Another individual was sighted in Golestān Province in 1958. [7] In Turkmenistan, the last known tiger was killed in January 1954 in the Sumbar River valley in the Kopet-Dag Range. [35] It reportedly disappeared in the Manasi River basin in the Tian Shan Range west of Ürümqi in the 1960s. [3] The last record from the lower reaches of the Amu Darya river was an unconfirmed observation in 1968 near Nukus in the Aral Sea area. By the early 1970s, tigers disappeared from the river's lower reaches and the Pyzandh Valley in the Turkmen-Uzbek-Afghan border region. [3] The Piandj River area between Afghanistan and Tajikistan was a stronghold of the Caspian tiger until the late 1960s. The latest sighting of a tiger in the Afghan-Tajik border area dates to 1998 in the Babatag Range. [28] A pair of Caspian tigers was captured in Afghanistan's Laghman Province in April 1997. [36]

In Kazakhstan, the last Caspian tiger was recorded in 1948, in the environs of the Ili River, the last known stronghold in the region of Lake Balkhash. [3] In May 2006, a Kazakh hunter claimed to have seen a female Caspian tiger with cubs near Lake Balkhash. However, this sighting remains uncertain and unconfirmed. [37]

Behaviour and ecology

Mosaic of an elephant attacking a tiger, from Roman Syria, which occupied parts of what is now Anatolia and Mesopotamia Elephant Attacking a Feline.jpg
Mosaic of an elephant attacking a tiger, from Roman Syria, which occupied parts of what is now Anatolia and Mesopotamia

No information is available for home ranges of Caspian tigers. In search for prey, they possibly prowled widely and followed migratory ungulates from one pasture to another. Wild pigs and cervids probably formed their main prey base. In many regions of Central Asia, Bactrian deer and roe deer were important prey species, as well as Caspian red deer and goitered gazelle in Iran; Eurasian golden jackals, jungle cats, locusts, and other small mammals in the lower Amu Darya River area; saigas, wild horses and Persian onagers in the Miankaleh Peninsula; Turkmenian kulans, Mongolian wild asses, and mountain sheep in the Zhana-Darya and around the Aral Sea; and Manchurian wapiti and moose in the area of Lake Baikal. They caught fish in flooded areas and irrigation channels. In winter, they frequently attacked dogs and livestock straying away from herds. They preferred drinking water from rivers, and drank from lakes in seasons when water was less brackish. [3]

Disease

Two tigers in southwestern Tajikistan harbored 5–7 tapeworms ( Taenia bubesei ) in their small and large intestines. [3]

Conservation

In 1938, the first protected area Tigrovaya Balka (Russian : Тигровая балка, lit.  'Tiger dry creek or Tiger arroyo '), was established in Tajikistan. The name was given to this zapovednik after a tiger had attacked two Russian Army officers riding horseback along dried-up river channel known in Russian as balka. Tigrovaya Balka was apparently the last refuge of Caspian tigers in the Soviet Union, and is situated in the lower reaches of Vakhsh River between the Piandj and Kofarnihon Rivers near the border of Afghanistan. A tiger was seen there in 1958. [39] After 1947, tigers were legally protected in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. [28]

In Iran, Caspian tigers had been protected since 1957, with heavy fines for shooting. In the early 1970s, biologists from the Department of Environment searched several years for Caspian tigers in the uninhabited areas of Caspian forests, but did not find any evidence of their presence. [7]

In captivity

Colour-enhanced photo of the captive tiger in Berlin Zoo, 1899 Caspian tiger.JPG
Colour-enhanced photo of the captive tiger in Berlin Zoo, 1899

A tiger from the Caucasus was housed at Berlin Zoo in the late 19th century. [1] DNA from a tiger caught in northern Iran and housed at Moscow Zoo in the 20th century was used in the genetic test that established the Caspian tiger's close genetic relationship with the Siberian tiger. [5]

Reintroduction project

Stimulated by recent findings that the Siberian tiger is the closest relative of the Caspian tiger, discussions started as to whether the Siberian tiger could be appropriate for reintroduction into a safe place in Central Asia, where the Caspian tiger once roamed. [40] The Amu Darya delta was suggested as a potential site for such a project. A feasibility study was initiated to investigate if the area is suitable, and if such an initiative would receive support from relevant decision makers. A viable tiger population of about 100 animals would require at least 5,000 km2 (1,900 sq mi) of large tracts of contiguous habitat, with rich prey populations. Such habitat is not currently available, and cannot be provided in the short term. The proposed region is therefore unsuitable for the reintroduction, at least at the current stage. [28]

While the restoration of the Caspian tiger has stimulated discussions, the locations for the tiger have yet to become fully involved in the planning. But through preliminary ecological surveys it has been revealed that some small populated areas of Central Asia have preserved natural habitat suitable for tigers. [41]

In culture

Odaenathus the Victorious.png
The 'Tiger Mosaic' in Palmyra
Lion(or tiger) on the Sher-dor madrassa.JPG
Portal of the Sher-Dor Madrasa in Samarkand depicting a tiger

In the Roman Empire, tigers and other large animals imported from Africa and Asia were used during gladiatorial games. [42] In the Taurus Mountains, stone traps were used to capture leopards and tigers. [43]

In the Fables of Pilpay, the tiger is described as furious and avid to rule over wilderness. [44] The babr (Persian : ببر, tiger) features in Persian and Central Asian culture. The name "Babr Mazandaran" is sometimes given to a prominent wrestler. [8] A Syrian mosaic in Palmyra depicts the Sassanids as tigers, possibly commemorating the victory of the Palmyrene King Odaenathus over Shapur I. The inscription on the mosaic conceals an earlier one that read: (Mrn), which is a title used by Odaenathus. [45] It possibly celebrates Odaenathus' victory over the Persians, the archer representing Odaenathus and the tigers the Persians; Odaenathus is about to be crowned with victory by the eagle flying above him. [46]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amu Darya</span> River in Central Asia

The Amu Darya, also called the Amu, the Amo, and historically the Oxus, is a major river in Central Asia and Afghanistan. Rising in the Pamir Mountains, north of the Hindu Kush, the Amu Darya is formed by the confluence of the Vakhsh and Panj rivers, in the Tigrovaya Balka Nature Reserve on the border between Afghanistan and Tajikistan, and flows from there north-westwards into the southern remnants of the Aral Sea. In its upper course, the river forms part of Afghanistan's northern border with Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, and Turkmenistan. In ancient history, the river was regarded as the boundary of Greater Iran with Turan, which roughly corresponded to present-day Central Asia. The Amu Darya has a flow of about 70 cubic kilometres per year on average.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tiger</span> Largest species of the cat family

The tiger is the largest living cat species and a member of the genus Panthera. It is most recognisable for its black stripes on orange fur with a white underside. An apex predator, it primarily preys on ungulates, such as deer and wild boar. It is territorial and generally a solitary but social predator, requiring large contiguous areas of habitat to support its requirements for prey and rearing of its offspring. Tiger cubs stay with their mother for about two years and then become independent, leaving their mother's home range to establish their own.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leopard</span> Large spotted cat native to Africa and Asia

The leopard is one of the five extant species in the genus Panthera. It has a pale yellowish to dark golden fur with dark spots grouped in rosettes. Its body is slender and muscular reaching a length of 92–183 cm (36–72 in) with a 66–102 cm (26–40 in) long tail and a shoulder height of 60–70 cm (24–28 in). Males typically weigh 30.9–72 kg (68–159 lb), and females 20.5–43 kg (45–95 lb).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bengal tiger</span> Tiger population on the Indian subcontinent

The Bengal tiger is a population of the Panthera tigris tigris subspecies and the nominate tiger subspecies. It ranks among the biggest wild cats alive today. It is considered to belong to the world's charismatic megafauna.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siberian tiger</span> Tiger population in Northeast Asia

The Siberian tiger or Amur tiger is a population of the tiger subspecies Panthera tigris tigris native to the Russian Far East, Northeast China and possibly North Korea. It once ranged throughout the Korean Peninsula, but currently inhabits mainly the Sikhote-Alin mountain region in southwest Primorye Province in the Russian Far East. In 2005, there were 331–393 adult and subadult Siberian tigers in this region, with a breeding adult population of about 250 individuals. The population had been stable for more than a decade because of intensive conservation efforts, but partial surveys conducted after 2005 indicate that the Russian tiger population was declining. An initial census held in 2015 indicated that the Siberian tiger population had increased to 480–540 individuals in the Russian Far East, including 100 cubs. This was followed up by a more detailed census which revealed there was a total population of 562 wild Siberian tigers in Russia. As of 2014, about 35 individuals were estimated to range in the international border area between Russia and China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indochinese tiger</span> Tiger population in Southeast Asia

The Indochinese tiger is a population of the Panthera tigris tigris subspecies that is native to Southeast Asia. This population occurs in Myanmar and Thailand In 2011, the population was thought to comprise 342 individuals, including 85 in Myanmar and 20 in Vietnam, with the largest population unit surviving in Thailand, estimated at 189 to 252 individuals during the period 2009 to 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sumatran tiger</span> Tiger subspecies endemic to Sumatra

The Sumatran tiger is a population of Panthera tigris sondaica on the Indonesian island of Sumatra. It is the only surviving tiger population in the Sunda Islands, where the Bali and Javan tigers are extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">South China tiger</span> Tiger population native to south China

The South China tiger is a population of the Panthera tigris tigris subspecies that is native to southern China. The population mainly inhabited the Fujian, Guangdong, Hunan and Jiangxi provinces. It has been listed as Critically Endangered on the China's Red List of Vertebrates and is possibly extinct in the wild since no wild individual has been recorded since the late 1980s. In the late 1990s, continued survival was considered unlikely because of low prey density, widespread habitat degradation and fragmentation, and other environmental issues in China. In the fur trade, it used to be called Amoy tiger.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Javan tiger</span> Extinct tiger population in Sunda Island Java

The Javan tiger was a Panthera tigris sondaica population native to the Indonesian island of Java until the mid-1970s. It was hunted to extinction, and its natural habitat converted for agricultural land use and infrastructure. It was one of the three tiger populations in the Sunda Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bali tiger</span> Extinct tiger subpopulation in Sunda Island Bali

The Bali tiger was a Panthera tigris sondaica population on the Indonesian island of Bali which has been extinct since the 1950s.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Malayan tiger</span> Tiger population in Malayan Peninsula

The Malayan tiger is a tiger from a specific population of the Panthera tigris tigris subspecies that is native to Peninsular Malaysia. This population inhabits the southern and central parts of the Malay Peninsula, and has been classified as critically endangered. As of April 2014, the population was estimated at 80–120 mature individuals,with a continuing downward trend.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian leopard</span> Leopard subspecies

The Indian leopard is a subspecies of the leopard that was first scientifically described in 1794. It is widely distributed on the Indian subcontinent. It is threatened by illegal trade of skins and body parts, and persecution due to human-leopard conflict and retaliation for livestock depredation.

The wildlife of Iran include the fauna and flora of Iran.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Surxondaryo (river)</span> River in Uzbekistan

The Surxondaryo or Surkhandarya is a primary right tributary of the Amu Darya in Uzbekistan. It is formed at the confluence of the rivers Karatag and Toʻpolondaryo near the city Denov. It flows into the Amu Darya in the city Termez. The river is 175 kilometres (109 mi) long and has a basin area of 13,500 square kilometres (5,200 sq mi).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Parc des Félins</span> Zoo in France

Parc des Félins is a zoological park in France dedicated to the breeding and conservation of wild members of the cat family. It is located in the commune of Lumigny-Nesles-Ormeaux in Seine-et-Marne, about 53.6 km (33.3 mi) southeast of Paris.

Htamanthi Wildlife Sanctuary is a 2,150.73 km2 (830.40 sq mi) large protected area in northern Myanmar. It was established in 1974 in the Sagaing Region.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Amur leopard</span> Leopard subspecies in Far East Asia

The Amur leopard is a leopard subspecies native to the Primorye region of southeastern Russia and northern China. It is listed as Critically Endangered on the IUCN Red List, as in 2007, only 19–26 wild leopards were estimated to survive in southeastern Russia and northeastern China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indochinese leopard</span> Leopard subspecies

The Indochinese leopard is a leopard subspecies native to mainland Southeast Asia and southern China. In Indochina, leopards are rare outside protected areas and threatened by habitat loss due to deforestation as well as poaching for the illegal wildlife trade. In 2016, the population was previously thought to comprise 973–2,503 mature individuals, with only 409–1,051 breeding adults. The historical range had decreased by more than 90%. However, as of 2019, it is estimated that there are 77-766 mature Indochinese leopards and that their numbers are decreasing.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Siberian Tiger Introduction Project</span> Wildlife conservation project

The Siberian Tiger Introduction Project involves reestablishing populations of the Siberian tiger, also known as the Amur tiger, in their former range and also expanding their range by introducing them as replacements of their genetically similar relative, the extinct Caspian tiger, which inhabited Central and Western Asia. Currently, the Siberian tiger inhabits the cold mountains of the Russian Far East and northern China.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bornean tiger</span> Tiger population from the Greater Sunda island of Borneo

The Bornean tiger or Borneo tiger is possibly an extinct tiger population that lived on the island of Borneo in prehistoric times. A live Bornean tiger has not been conclusively recorded, but the indigenous Dayak people believe in its existence, and occasionally report sightings.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Nowell, K. & Jackson, P. (1996). "Tiger, Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)" (PDF). Wild Cats: status survey and conservation action plan. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group. pp. 55–65.
  2. 1 2 Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O'Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z. & Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 66–68.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Heptner, V. G. & Sludskij, A. A. (1992) [1972]. "Tiger". Mlekopitajuščie Sovetskogo Soiuza. Moskva: Vysšaia Škola[Mammals of the Soviet Union. Volume II, Part 2. Carnivora (Hyaenas and Cats)]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution and the National Science Foundation. pp. 95–202.
  4. 1 2 Jackson, P. & Nowell, K. (2011). "Panthera tigris ssp. virgata". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2011: e.T41505A10480967.
  5. 1 2 3 Driscoll, C. A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Bar-Gal, G. K.; Roca, A. L.; Luo, S.; Macdonald, D. W. & O'Brien, S. J. (2009). "Mitochondrial Phylogeography Illuminates the Origin of the Extinct Caspian Tiger and Its Relationship to the Amur Tiger". PLOS ONE. 4 (1): e4125. Bibcode:2009PLoSO...4.4125D. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0004125 . PMC   2624500 . PMID   19142238.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Mazák, V. (1981). "Panthera tigris". Mammalian Species (152): 1–8. doi: 10.2307/3504004 . JSTOR   3504004.
  7. 1 2 3 4 Firouz, E. (2005). "Tiger". The complete fauna of Iran. London, New York: I. B. Tauris. pp. 66–67. ISBN   978-1-85043-946-2.
  8. 1 2 Humphreys, P. & Kahrom, E. (1999). "Caspian tiger". Lion and Gazelle: The Mammals and Birds of Iran. Avon: Images Publishing. pp. 75–77. ISBN   9781860642296.
  9. ↑ Illiger, C. (1815). "Überblick der Säugethiere nach ihrer Verteilung über die Welttheile". Abhandlungen der Königlichen Preußischen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 1804−1811: 39–159. Archived from the original on 2019-06-08. Retrieved 2020-07-15.
  10. ↑ Satunin, K. (1906). "Die Säugetiere des Talyschgebietes und der Mugansteppe" [The mammals of the Talysch and the Mugan steppe regions]. Mitteilungen des Kaukasischen Museums. 2: 263–394.
  11. ↑ Schwarz, E. (1916). "Zwei neue Lokalformen des Tigers aus Centralasien" [Two new local races of the Tiger from Central Asia]. Zoologischer Anzeiger. 47 (12): 351–354.
  12. ↑ Pocock, R. I. (1929). "Tigers". Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. 33 (3): 505–541.
  13. ↑ Wozencraft, W. C. (2005). "Subspecies Panthera tigris virgata". In Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 548. ISBN   978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC   62265494.
  14. 1 2 Kitchener, A. (1999). "Tiger distribution, phenotypic variation and conservation issues". In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S.; Jackson, P. (eds.). Riding the Tiger: Tiger Conservation in Human-Dominated Landscapes. Cambridge University Press. pp. 19–39. ISBN   978-0-521-64835-6. Archived from the original on 2012-04-23.
  15. ↑ Wilting, A.; Courtiol, A.; Christiansen, P.; Niedballa, J.; Scharf, A. K.; Orlando, L.; Balkenhol, N.; Hofer, H.; Kramer-Schadt, S.; Fickel, J. & Kitchener, A., A. C. (2015). "Planning tiger recovery: Understanding intraspecific variation for effective conservation". Science Advances. 11 (5): e1400175. Bibcode:2015SciA....1E0175W. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1400175. PMC   4640610 . PMID   26601191.
  16. ↑ Li, Y.-C.; Sun, X.; Driscoll, C.; Miquelle, D. G.; Xu, X.; Martelli, P.; Uphyrkina, O.; Smith, J. L. D.; O'Brien, S. J. & Luo, S.-J. (2018). "Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world's tigers". Current Biology. 28 (23): 3840–3849.e6. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2018.09.019 . PMID   30482605.
  17. ↑ Nowak, R. M. (1999). Walker's Mammals of the World. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN   978-0-8018-5789-8.
  18. ↑ Mazák, J. H. (2010). "Craniometric variation in the tiger (Panthera tigris): Implications for patterns of diversity, taxonomy and conservation". Mammalian Biology – Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde. 75 (1): 45–68. doi:10.1016/j.mambio.2008.06.003.
  19. 1 2 3 Kock, D. (1990). "Historical record of a tiger, Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758), in Iraq". Zoology in the Middle East. 4: 11–15. doi:10.1080/09397140.1990.10637583.
  20. 1 2 Can, Ö. E. (2004). Status, conservation and management of large carnivores in Turkey (PDF). Strasbourg: Convention on the conservation of European wildlife and natural habitats.
  21. ↑ Hatt, R. T. (1959). The mammals of Iraq. Ann Arbor: Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan.
  22. ↑ Masseti, M. (2009). "Carnivores of Syria". In Neubert, E.; Amr, Z.; Taiti, S.; Gümüs, B. (eds.). Animal Biodiversity in the Middle East. Proceedings of the First Middle Eastern Biodiversity Congress, Aqaba, Jordan, 20–23 October 2008. ZooKeys 31. pp. 229–252. doi: 10.3897/zookeys.31.170 .
  23. ↑ Faizolahi, K. (2016). "Tiger in Iran – historical distribution, extinction causes and feasibility of reintroduction". Cat News (Special issue 10): 5–13.
  24. ↑ Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (1999). "Preface". Riding the Tiger. Tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. XV–XIX. ISBN   978-0-521-64835-6.
  25. 1 2 Sunquist, M.; Karanth, K. U. & Sunquist, F. (1999). "Ecology, behaviour and resilience of the tiger and its conservation needs". In Seidensticker, J.; Christie, S. & Jackson, P. (eds.). Riding the Tiger. Tiger conservation in human-dominated landscapes. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 5–18. ISBN   9780521648356.
  26. ↑ Cooper, D. M.; Dugmore, A. J.; Gittings, B. M.; Scharf, A. K.; Wilting, A. & Kitchener, A. C. (2016). "Predicted Pleistocene–Holocene range shifts of the tiger (Panthera tigris)". Diversity and Distributions. 22 (11): 1199–1211. doi: 10.1111/ddi.12484 .
  27. 1 2 Johnson, P. (1991). The birth of the Modern World Society, 1815–1830 . New York: Harper Collins Publishers. ISBN   978-0-06-016574-1.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Jungius, H.; Chikin, Y.; Tsaruk, O. & Pereladova, O. (2009). Pre-Feasibility Study on the Possible Restoration of the Caspian Tiger in the Amu Darya Delta (PDF). WWF Russia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 19 August 2016.
  29. ↑ Brower, D. R. (2003). Turkestan and the fate of the Russian Empire. London: Routledge. ISBN   978-0-415-29744-8.
  30. 1 2 Ognev, S. I. (1935). "Carnivora (Fissipedia)". Mammals of the U.S.S.R. and adjacent countries. Vol. 2. Washington D. C.: National Science Foundation.
  31. ↑ Novikov, A. G. (1962). Khishchnye mlekopitayushchie fauny SSSR[Carnivorous mammals of the fauna of the USSR]. Israel program for scientific translations. OCLC   797893515.
  32. ↑ Johnson, K. (2002). "The Status of mammalian carnivores in Turkey" (PDF). Endangered Species Update 19 (6): 232–237.
  33. ↑ Baytop, T. (1974). "La presence du vrai tigre, Panthera tigris (Linne 1758) en Turquie". Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen. 22 (3): 254–256.
  34. ↑ Kumerloeve, H. (1974). "Zum Vorkommen des Tigers auf türkischem Boden". Säugetierkundliche Mitteilungen. 22 (4): 348–350.
  35. ↑ Ministry of Forest of Turkmenistan (1999). The Red Data Book of Turkmenistan. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Turkmenistan Publishing House.
  36. ↑ UN Department of Humanitarian Affairs (1997). Afghanistan Weekly Update No. 215. UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (Report).
  37. ↑ Rossi, L.; Scuzzarella, C.M.; Angelici, F.M. (2020). "Extinct or Perhaps Surviving Relict Populations of Big Cats: Their Controversial Stories and Implications for Conservation". In Angelici, F.M.; Rossi, L. (eds.). Problematic Wildlife II. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 393–417. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42335-3_12. ISBN   978-3-030-42335-3. S2CID   218943307.
  38. ↑ Sicker, M. (2001). Between Rome and Jerusalem: 300 years of Roman-Judaean relations. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. ISBN   9780275971403 . Retrieved 26 July 2012.
  39. ↑ Dybas, C. L. (2010). "The Once and Future Tiger". BioScience. 60 (11): 872–877. doi:10.1525/bio.2010.60.11.3. S2CID   83471382.
  40. ↑ Luo, S.-J.; Johnson, W. E. & O'Brien, S. J. (2010). "Applying molecular genetic tools to tiger conservation". Integrative Zoology. 5 (4): 351–362. doi:10.1111/j.1749-4877.2010.00222.x. PMC   6984346 . PMID   21392353.
  41. ↑ Driscoll, C.A.; Chestin, I.; Jungius, H.; Pereladova, O.; Darman, Y.; Dinerstein, E.; Seidensticker, J.; Sanderson, J.; Christie, S.; Luo, S.J.; Shrestha, M.; Zhuravlev, Y.; Uphyrkina, O.; Jhala, Y.V.; Yadav, S.P.; Pikunov, D.G.; Yamaguchi, N.; Wildt, D.E.; J.L.D. Smith; L. Marker; P.J. Nyhus; R. Tilson; D.W. Macdonald & O’Brien, S.J. (2012). "A postulate for tiger recovery: the case of the Caspian Tiger". Journal of Threatened Taxa. 4 (6): 2637–2643. doi: 10.11609/jott.o2993.2637-43 .
  42. ↑ Auguet, R. (1994). "The hunts of the amphitheatre". Cruelty and civilization: the Roman games. Psychology Press. pp. 81–106. ISBN   978-0-415-10453-1.
  43. ↑ Şekercioğlu, Ç.H.; Anderson, S.; Akcay, E.; Bilgin, R.; Can, O. & Semiz, G. (2011). "Turkey's Globally Important Biodiversity In Crisis". Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 2752–2769. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.06.025. S2CID   18094317.
  44. ↑ Kāshifī, H. V. (1854). The Anvari Suhaili; or the Lights of Canopus Being the Persian version of the Fables of Pilpay; or the Book Kalílah and Damnah rendered into Persian by Husain Vá'iz U'L-Káshifí. Translated by Eastwick, E. B. Hertford: Stephen Austin.
  45. ↑ Gawlikowski, M. (2005). "L'apothéose d'Odeinat sur une Mosaïque Récemment Découverte à Palmyre". Comptes Rendus des Séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (in French). 149 (4): 1293–1304. doi:10.3406/crai.2005.22944.
  46. ↑ Gawlikowski, M. (2006). "Palmyra". Current World Archaeology. 12: 32.

Further reading

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.