Corruption in Niger

Last updated

Corruption in Niger has a long history in pre-colonial and colonial era, as well as in the current state and has been a pervasive issue in the country's political, economic, and social landscape. [1] The colonial administration mismanaged public funds, leading to inefficiencies and waste. Corrupt officials often went unpunished, perpetuating a culture of corruption. [2]

Contents

History

Pre-colonial era

Corruption existed in various forms in pre-colonial Niger, with instances of embezzlement, nepotism, and bribery among traditional leaders and traders. During the colonial era, corruption was prevalent among French colonial officials and African collaborators.

Colonial era (1920-1960)

French colonial rule introduced modern forms of corruption, including cronyism, and exploitation of natural resources. Governor-General Jean Moulin (1937-1940) embezzled funds meant for development projects, using them to build his personal mansion in Niamey. Colonel Paul Nougues (1940-1942) diverted funds intended for the military to his own accounts and French companies such as Compagnie Française de l'Afrique Occidentale (CFAO) and Société Minière de l'Air (SMA) extracted Niger's natural resources (uranium, gold, livestock) with little benefit to the local population. The French colonial administration forced Nigeriens to work in exploitative conditions in mines and on cotton plantations.

French officials accepted bribes from companies in exchange for favorable treatment and contracts. African collaborators such as Chief Amadou Djibo (1930s-1940s) used their positions to accumulate wealth and influence through corrupt means.

Colonial officials such as Commandant Léon Riou (1920s) used coercion and intimidation to maintain control over local populations. The French colonial administration imposed heavy taxes, forced labor, and land expropriation on Nigeriens.

The "Scandale des subsistances" (1935) saw French officials embezzle funds meant for food supplies, leading to widespread famine among the local population. The "Affaire des mines d'uranium" (1940s) involved French companies and officials colluding to exploit Niger's uranium resources, ignoring safety and environmental concerns. [2]

Post-colonial era (1960-1999)

Following independence, corruption became more entrenched, with President Hamani Diori and his successor, Seyni Kountché, with accusations of embezzlement and nepotism. Corruption during Niger's post-colonial era was widespread and deeply ingrained. President Hamani Diori (1960-1974) took millions of dollars in public funds, awarded lucrative contracts to cronies and family members, and accumulated vast tracts of land and property. [2]

President Seyni Kountché (1974-1987) established a repressive regime marked by human rights abuses, stole funds meant for development projects, and favored cronies and family members in business deals.

President Ali Saibou (1987-1993) continued the corrupt practices of his predecessors, mismanaged the country's economy, and faced allegations of embezzlement and nepotism.

President Mahamane Ousmane (1993-1996) failed to address corruption and nepotism, faced allegations of embezzlement and abuse of power, and was ousted in a military coup.

The Uranium Gate scandal saw officials use funds for personal expenses meant for the development of the uranium industry. The Food Crisis scandal involved government officials and businessmen embezzling funds meant for food imports, exacerbating a severe famine. The National Housing Scheme scandal saw officials embezzle funds meant for a national housing project, leaving thousands of Nigeriens without homes.

Military rule (1999-1999)

The military regime of Ibrahim Baré Maïnassara was marked by widespread corruption, including embezzlement and human rights abuses. [3] [4]

The regime, led by Major Daouda Malam Wanké, was marked by embezzlement, with military officials looting public funds and assets, enriching themselves and their members.

Nepotism was also rampant, with Wanké favoring family members and close associate's in business deals and government appointments. Military officials used their positions to intimidate and exploit civilians, extorting money and resources. Corruption and human rights abuses went unpunished, perpetuating a culture of impunity. The Petromiangate scandal saw military officials embezzle funds meant for fuel imports, leading to widespread shortages and price hikes. The CFAO scandal involved the embezzlement of funds from the state-owned company CFAO, meant for agricultural development.

Human rights abuses were widespread, with military officials committing extrajudicial killings, torture, and arbitrary arrests, often for personal gain. The military regime's corruption and brutality sparked widespread protests, leading to Wanké's ouster in April 1999. [3]

Democratic era (1999-2009)

The return to democracy saw some efforts to combat corruption, but it remained a significant problem, with President Mamadou Tandja accused of embezzlement and electoral fraud. Mamadou Tandja and his officials looted public funds, misappropriating millions of dollars meant for development projects. Tandja favored family members and close associates in the business deals, government appointments, and access to state resources. [5] [6]

He and his officials used their positions to intimidate and exploit civilians, suppressing political opposition and dissent. Corruption and human rights abuses went unpunished, perpetuating a culture of impunity. [7] [8]

The Uranium Gate scandal saw Tandja's regime embezzle funds meant for the development of the uranium industry. [9] The Petromiangate scandal involved officials embezzling funds meant for fuel imports, leading to widespread shortages and price hikes. The CFAO scandal saw Tandja's regime embezzle funds from the state-owned company CFAO, meant for agricultural development. [10]

The Imouraren scandal involved Tandja's regime embezzling funds meant for the development of the Imouraren uranium mine. Tandja's regime was marked by widespread corruption, nepotism, and abuse of power, leading to his overthrow in a military coup in 2010. The regime's corruption and impunity had a lasting impact on Niger's political and economic landscape. [11] [12]

Coup and political unrest (2009-2011)

The military coup that overthrew President Tandja led to a period of political instability, during which corruption continued to thrive. [13] [3]

The military junta, led by Salou Djibo, and political elites exploited the political chaos for personal gain. Embezzlement and misappropriation of public funds were widespread, with military officials and political leaders looting state resources. Nepotism and cronyism were prevalent, with junta members and political elites favoring family and friends in business deals and government appointments. [14] [15]

The Uranium scandal saw junta members embezzle funds meant for uranium development, siphoning off millions of dollars. In the Fuel gate scandal, military officials embezzled funds meant for fuel imports, causing widespread shortages and price hikes. The Food aid scandal involved junta members diverting international food aid to sell on the black market, exacerbating hunger and poverty. The Weapon procurement scandal saw the junta embezzle funds meant for weapon purchases, leaving the military ill-equipped. The corruption and impunity of the junta and political elites exacerbated Niger's political and economic instability, perpetuating a culture of corruption and undermining the rule of law. [16]

Current era (2011–present)

While President Mahamadou Issoufou has made efforts to tackle corruption, it remains a significant challenge. Key corruption scandals in Niger include the Uranium Gate scandal, Petromiangate scandal, Sonatrach scandal, and Imouraren uranium mine corruption allegations. [17]

Efforts to combat corruption in Niger include the establishment of the National Commission for the Fight against Corruption, adoption of the United Nations Convention against Corruption, and implementation of the African Union's Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption. [18] [17] [19]

President Mahamadou Issoufou's government has been marred by corruption scandals, including the Patrocinated scandal in 2011, where officials embezzled funds meant for fuel imports, causing widespread shortages and price hikes.

In 2012, Issoufou's close associates embezzled funds meant for a state-owned mining company, known as the Sonichar scandal. The Nigerien Uranium scandal in 2013 saw officials embezzle funds meant for uranium development, siphoning off millions of dollars. [20]

In 2015, Nigerien officials embezzled funds meant for development projects, leading to the country's suspension from the African Development Bank. Most recently, the COVID-19 funds scandal in 2020 saw officials embezzle funds meant for pandemic response efforts.

Anti-corruption initiatives

Anti-corruption initiatives in Niger have evolved over the years, with various efforts aimed at tackling corruption and promoting transparency. Here are some key initiatives: [17]

Early years (1960s-1980s)

Niger's first president, Hamani Diori, established the Commission for the Repression of Embezzlement and Misappropriation of Public Funds.

1990-1999

The Nigerien government established the Ministry of Justice and Human Rights, which included a department dedicated to combating corruption.

2000s

Niger adopted the United Nations Convention against Corruption (UNCAC) and established the National Commission for the Fight against Corruption (CNLC).

2010s

The CNLC was replaced by the High Authority for the Fight against Corruption and Asset Recovery (HALCIA), which has more powers and independence.

2011

President Mahamadou Issoufou launched the "Nigeriens Debout" (Nigerians Stand Up) initiative, aimed at promoting good governance and fighting corruption.

2015

Niger adopted the African Union's Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption.

2018

HALCIA launched the "National Strategy for the Fight against Corruption" (SNLC), a comprehensive plan to tackle corruption.

2020

Niger established the "Asset Recovery Office" to manage and recover stolen assets.

Money laundering laws

Niger's money laundering laws aim to prevent and combat money laundering and terrorist financing. The country has enacted several laws and regulations to comply with international standards, including the Law on Prevention and Repression of Money Laundering and Terrorist Financing. This law criminalizes money laundering and terrorist financing and requires financial institutions to report suspicious transactions. [17]

The Financial Intelligence Unit (FIU) was established to receive and analyze these reports, and to investigate and prosecute money laundering and terrorist financing cases. The FIU also works with foreign financial intelligence units to trace and recover illicit funds.

The High Authority for the Fight against Corruption and Asset Recovery (HALCIA) is responsible for investigating and prosecuting corruption cases, including embezzlement, bribery, and misappropriation of public funds. HALCIA also works to recover stolen assets and to implement sanctions against individuals and companies found guilty of corruption. The National Commission for the Fight against Corruption (CNLC) is a separate agency that works to prevent corruption and promote good governance. The CNLC provides training and capacity building for public officials and works to raise awareness about the dangers of corruption. [17]

The Ministry of Justice and Human Rights is responsible for prosecuting corruption and money laundering cases, and for providing legal guidance to other agencies. The Ministry of Finance works to prevent money laundering and terrorist financing by implementing regulations and oversight for financial institutions.

Political changes in Niger have had a significant impact on the country's anti-corruption efforts. President Mahamadou Issoufou's "Nigeriens Debout" initiative aimed to promote good governance and fight corruption. The establishment of HALCIA and the FIU demonstrated the government's commitment to combating corruption and money laundering. [17]

Niger's membership in the African Union's Convention on Preventing and Combating Corruption also shows the country's dedication to regional and international cooperation in the fight against corruption. The National Strategy for the Fight against Corruption provides a roadmap for the country's anti-corruption efforts, and includes measures to improve transparency, accountability, and public participation. [17]

Political change

Political changes in Niger have had a significant impact on the country's corruption landscape. President Mahamadou Issoufou's "Nigeriens Debout" initiative aimed to promote good governance and fight corruption, but critics argue it was more rhetoric than action. [19]

The establishment of HALCIA and FIU demonstrated a commitment to combating corruption, but their effectiveness has been hindered by lack of resources and political interference. Changes in government leadership have led to shifts in corruption patterns, with new officials often accused of embezzlement and nepotism. Political instability and coups have created power vacuums, allowing corruption to flourish. International pressure and sanctions, such as the EU's 2019 sanctions on Nigerien officials, have pushed the government to take action against corruption, but progress is slow. Civil society and media scrutiny have increased, exposing corruption scandals and pushing for accountability. However, political will to combat corruption remains inconsistent, with some leaders prioritizing personal interests over reform. [19]

International Ranking

In Transparency International's 2023 Corruption Perceptions Index, Niger scored 32 on a scale from 0 ("highly corrupt") to 100 ("very clean"). When ranked by score, Niger ranked 125th among the 180 countries in the Index, where the country ranked first is perceived to have the most honest public sector. [21] For comparison with worldwide scores, the best score was 90 (ranked 1), the average score was 43, and the worst score was 11 (ranked 180). [22] For comparison with regional scores, the average score among sub-Saharan African countries [Note 1] was 33. The highest score in sub-Saharan Africa was 71 and the lowest score was 11. [23]

Media, civil society and resistance

Media, civil society, and resistance in Niger have played a crucial role in exposing and combating corruption, despite facing challenges and intimidation. [24]

Media

Investigative journalism has uncovered corruption scandals, such as embezzlement and nepotism, involving high-ranking officials. Media outlets have reported on corruption in the mining sector, including bribery and illegal mining. Journalists have faced harassment, arrest, and intimidation for their reporting on corruption. [25]

Civil Society

Organizations such as the Nigerien Association for the Defense of Human Rights (ANDDH) and the Nigerien Coalition for the Fight against Corruption (CNLC) have been vocal in their criticism of corruption. Civil society groups have organized protests and demonstrations against corruption and impunity. They have also conducted investigations and published reports on corruption in various sectors.

Resistance

Whistleblowers have come forward to expose corruption in the government and private sector. Anti-corruption activists have faced intimidation and harassment but continue to push for accountability. Online movements and social media campaigns have been launched to raise awareness about corruption and demand action from the government. [25]

Challenges

Media and civil society face restrictions and intimidation, including laws that criminalize defamation and whistleblowing. Corruption is often used to silence critics, with bribes or other forms of corruption used to buy their silence. The government has been slow to implement reforms and take action against corruption, despite promises to do so. [25]

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Kenya, Lesotho, Republic of the Congo, Swaziland, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Seychelles, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Africa, South Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Niger</span> Landlocked country in West Africa

Niger or the Niger, officially the Republic of the Niger, is a country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. It covers a land area of almost 1,270,000 km2 (490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and the second largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in the Sahara. Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million lives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capital Niamey is located in Niger's southwest corner.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hama Amadou</span> Nigerien politician

Hama Amadou is a Nigerien politician who was Prime Minister of Niger from 1995 to 1996 and again from 2000 to 2007. He was also Secretary-General of the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD-Nassara) from 1991 to 2001 and President of the MNSD-Nassara from 2001 to 2009. Amadou is from the Kurtey, a Fula sub-group, and was raised in the Tillaberi Region, in the Niger River valley, north of Niamey.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mamadou Tandja</span> President of Niger from 1999 to 2010

Mamadou Tandja was a Nigerien politician who was President of Niger from 1999 to 2010. He was President of the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD) from 1991 to 1999 and unsuccessfully ran as the MNSD's presidential candidate in 1993 and 1996 before being elected to his first term in 1999. While serving as President of Niger, he was also Chairman of the Economic Community of West African States from 2005 to 2007.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Elections in Niger</span>

Elections in Niger take place within the framework of a semi-presidential system. The President and National Assembly are elected by the public, with elections organised by the Independent National Electoral Commission (CENI).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mahamadou Issoufou</span> President of Niger from 2011 to 2021

Mahamadou Issoufou is a Nigerien politician who served as the president of Niger from 7 April 2011 to 2 April 2021. Issoufou was the prime minister of Niger from 1993 to 1994, president of the National Assembly from 1995 to 1996, and a candidate in each presidential election from 1993 to 2016. He led the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism (PNDS-Tarayya), a social democratic party, from its foundation in 1990 until his election as president in 2011. During the presidency of Mamadou Tandja (1999–2010), Issoufou was the main opposition leader.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Movement for the Society of Development</span> Political party in Niger

The National Movement for the Society of Development, also known as the National Movement for the Development of Society is a political party in Niger. Founded under the military government of the 1974–1990 period, it was the ruling party of Niger from 1989 to 1993 and again from 1999 until 2010, when a coup on 18 February 2010, by a military junta called the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy (CSRD), ousted President Mamadou Tandja.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism</span> Political party in Niger

The Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism is a political party in Niger. It is a broadly left-leaning party, part of the Socialist International; it came to power in 2011 following the election of the former long-time leader Mahamadou Issoufou. Mohamed Bazoum is the former President of the party and the former Secretary-General is Foumakoye Gado.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">National Assembly (Niger)</span> Legislative body of Niger

The unicameral National Assembly is Niger's legislative body. The National Assembly proposed laws and was required to approve all legislation.

Amadou Cheiffou is a Nigerien politician who was Prime Minister of Niger from 26 October 1991 to 17 April 1993, heading a transitional government. He has led the Social Democratic Rally (RSD-Gaskiya), a political party, since founding it in January 2004. Cheiffou was President of the Economic, Social and Cultural Council of Niger (CESOC) from January 2006 to February 2010, and held the official post of Ombudsman from August 2011 to December 2015.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mohamed Bazoum</span> Nigerien politician (born 1960)

Mohamed Bazoum is a Nigerien politician who served as the 10th president of Niger from 2021 to 2023. He assumed office in April 2021 after winning the 2020–21 presidential election and surviving a coup d'état attempt. He was ousted in the 2023 Nigerien coup d'état by members of the presidential guard and the armed forces led by Abdourahamane Tchiani.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Seyni Oumarou</span> President of the Nigerien National Assembly

Seyni Oumarou is a Nigerien politician who was Prime Minister of Niger from June 2007 to September 2009 and President of the National Assembly of Niger from November 2009 to February 2010. He is from the west of the country and is a member of the Djerma ethnic group. Since November 2008, he has been the President of the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD). He unsuccessfully stood as a presidential candidate in 2011, 2016 and 2021. After years as an opposition leader under President Mahamadou Issoufou, he was appointed to the post of High Representative of the President in October 2016.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hassoumi Massaoudou</span> Nigerien politician (born 1957)

Hassoumi Massaoudou is a Nigerien politician who served as minister of Foreign Affairs of Niger from 2021 to 2023 and as minister of Finance from October 2016 to January 2019. A leading member of the Nigerien Party for Democracy and Socialism (PNDS-Tarayya), he was minister of Communication, Culture, Youth and Sports from 1993 to 1994, president of the PNDS Parliamentary Group from 1999 to 2004, director of the Cabinet of the President from 2011 to 2013, minister of the Interior from 2013 to 2016, and minister of National Defense in 2016.

Albadé Abouba is a Nigerien politician who has been the Secretary-General of the National Movement for the Development of Society (MNSD-Nassara) since 2009. He served as Niger's Minister of the Interior from 2002 to 2004 and again from 2007 to 2010. Abouba also served as Prime Minister in an acting capacity for a brief period in September–October 2009. In August 2013 he served in the government of President Mahamadou Issoufou as Minister of State. He is now the president of the MPR-Jamhuriya, a political party that he created in October 2015. Since April 2016, he has served as Minister of State, Minister of Agriculture and livestock.

Issoufou Assoumane is a Nigerien politician who has been President of the Union of Nigerien Democrats and Socialists since 2001. He served in the government of Niger as Minister of Mines and Energy from 1995 to 1996 and as Minister of the Environment from 2000 to 2001.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ali Badjo Gamatié</span> Nigerien politician and civil servant

Ali Badjo Gamatié is a Nigerien politician and civil servant who served as Prime Minister of Niger from October 2009 to February 2010. He was Minister of Finance from 2000 to 2002 and then served as Vice-Governor of the Central Bank of West African States (BCEAO) before being appointed as Prime Minister by President Mamadou Tandja. Gamatié was Prime Minister for only a few months, however, as Tandja was overthrown in a February 2010 military coup.

A coup d'état occurred in Niger on 18 February 2010. Soldiers attacked the presidential palace in Niamey under weapons fire at midday and captured President Mamadou Tandja, who was chairing a government meeting at the time. Later in the day, the rebels announced on television the formation of the Supreme Council for the Restoration of Democracy (CSRD), headed by chef d'escadron Salou Djibo.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2011 Nigerien general election</span>

General elections were held in Niger on 31 January 2011 to elect the President and National Assembly, with a second round of the presidential elections on 12 March. The first round of the presidential elections was originally scheduled to be held on 3 January and the second round on 31 January, but was later postponed. The elections followed a military coup in February 2010 that ousted President Mamadou Tandja.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">2011 Nigerien coup attempt</span> Coup détat attempt in Nigeria

The 2011 Nigerien coup attempt, taking place in a two-day period from July 12 through July 13, was a failed coup d'état against democratically elected Niger President Mahamadou Issoufou by more than ten perpetrators, including a major and a lieutenant. The first time Niger officials confirmed the coup attempt, President Issoufou stated that "The law will be applied in all its severity to those (who), without any objective reason, have decided to put an end to the choice of the people" in a televised address to the nation on August 3, 2011, coinciding with the country's 51st anniversary of independence.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corruption in Malawi</span>

Corruption in Malawi has a long and complex history with rapid evolvement over time. During the colonial era, corruption was prevalent, with colonial officials embezzling funds and engaging in other corrupt practices. After independence in 1964, Hastings Kamuzu Banda's regime perpetuated corruption, using state resources for personal gain and suppressing any opposition.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Corruption in Namibia</span> Institutional corruption in the country

Corruption in Namibia spans from the pre-colonial era to the present day. After independence in 1990, corruption and fraud issues continued, with cases involving misappropriation of state funds as well as resources, bribery and corruption in government tenders and contracts, and embezzlement of funds meant for social programs and development projects.

References

  1. ↑ "Niger: NGOs complain over alleged loss of $99m in state funds". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  2. 1 2 3 "In West and Central Africa, authorities must fight corruption and uphold the human rights of those who expose it". Amnesty International. 2023-07-11. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  3. 1 2 3 "Timeline: A history of coups in Niger". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  4. ↑ https://www.news24.com/news24/niger-ordered-to-compensate-mainassaras-family-20151023
  5. ↑ https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSJOE70G01U/
  6. ↑ "Niger Court Orders Release of Former President Tandja". Voice of America. 2011-05-09. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  7. ↑ https://www.iol.co.za/news/africa/niger-ex-president-freed-charges-dropped-1067140
  8. ↑ "Niger court drops corruption charges against ex-president Tandja". www.jurist.org. 2011-05-11. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  9. ↑ "Opposition leader faces probe". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  10. ↑ "Niger Police Arrest Former Prime Minister, Senior Officials". Voice of America. 2010-08-02. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  11. ↑ "Anti-Corruption Fight in Peril: Crackdown on Anti-Corruption Human Rights Defenders in West and Central Africa - Niger | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. 2023-07-11. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  12. ↑ "Niger court drops charges against ex-President Tandja". BBC News. 2011-05-10. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  13. ↑ "Niger coup: Is France to blame for instability in West Africa?". 2023-08-06. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  14. ↑ Baudais, Virginie; Chauzal, Grégory (2011). "Briefing: The 2010 Coup D'état in Niger: A Praetorian Regulation of Politics?". African Affairs. 110 (439): 295–304. doi:10.1093/afraf/adr017. ISSN   0001-9909. JSTOR   41240194.
  15. ↑ "Ten arrested over attempted coup in Niger". France 24. 2011-08-03. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  16. ↑ "Niger corruption case 'political'". 2009-09-15. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  17. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Burke, Jason; correspondent, Jason Burke Africa (2020-08-06). "Niger lost tens of millions to arms deals malpractice, leaked report alleges". The Guardian. ISSN   0261-3077 . Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  18. ↑ "Niger's junta chief sets up anti-corruption body". Africanews. 2023-11-17. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  19. 1 2 3 "Niger: Junta is fueled by anger against a 'sick democracy'". Le Monde.fr. 2023-08-09. Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  20. ↑ "Imprisonment for defamation seeks to silence investigative journalism in Niger". Global Initiative. Retrieved 2024-06-15.
  21. ↑ "The ABCs of the CPI: How the Corruption Perceptions Index is calculated". Transparency.org. 20 December 2021. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  22. ↑ "Corruption Perceptions Index 2023: Niger". Transparency.org. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  23. ↑ "CPI 2023 for Sub-Saharan Africa: Impunity for Corrupt Officials, Restricted Civic Space & Limited Access to Justice". Transparency.org. Retrieved 14 July 2024.
  24. ↑ https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236405883.pdf
  25. 1 2 3 https://www.civicus.org/documents/reports-and-publications/charm/FOJO_people-power-truth-2021.pdf


This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.