History of cycling infrastructure

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The history of cycling infrastructure starts from shortly after the bike boom of the 1880s when the first short stretches of dedicated bicycle infrastructure were built, through to the rise of the automobile from the mid-20th century onwards and the concomitant decline of cycling as a means of transport, to cycling's comeback from the 1970s onwards.

Contents

Pre-motorisation

The California Cycle-Way, 1900 California Cycleway 1900.jpg
The California Cycle-Way, 1900

By the end of the 19th century, cycling was growing from a hobby to an established form of transport. Cyclists campaigned to improve the existing, often poorly surfaced, roads and tracks. A US group was the Good Roads Movement, another the League of American Bicyclists. [1] [2] The UK equivalent was the Cyclists' Touring Club (CTC), which distributed a treatise entitled Roads: Their construction and maintenance, [3] and which, with the Bicycle Union, formed the Roads Improvement Association in October 1886. [4] The first bicycle paths were built around this time.

In 1896 the first bikeway in the United States was created by splitting the pedestrian way of Ocean Parkway (Brooklyn). Following this successful installation numerous bicycle paths separate from the roadway were constructed by "bicycle path associations". In the United States the first was the nine-mile dedicated Cycle-Way built in 1897 to connect Pasadena, California to Los Angeles. Its right of way followed the stream bed of the Arroyo Seco and required 1,250,000 board feet (2,950 m3) of pine to construct. The roundtrip toll was 15¢ US and it was lit with electric lights along its entire length. The route did not succeed, and the right of way later became the route for the Arroyo Seco Parkway, an automobile freeway opened in 1940. [5]

Cycling in the Netherlands began in 1870 and by the 1920s was the most popular mode of transportation (at about 75%). The first bicycle path was built in 1885 in the city of Utrecht along the Maliebaan [6] [7] [8] and in 1899 with two paved bicycle paths alongside the Breda-Tilburg cobblestone road. [9] In Germany, concerns arose regarding conflicts between cyclists, horse traffic and pedestrians. The first cycle tracks were constructed in Bremen in 1897, and there were extensive plans for Hamburg as early as 1899. [10]

Early 20th century

With the advent of the motor car, conflict arose between the increasingly powerful car lobby and bicycle users. [3] By the 1920s and 1930s the German car lobbies initiated efforts to have cyclists removed from the roads so as to improve the convenience of motoring. [11] In the UK, the cycling lobby was attempting to remove motor vehicles from the roads by calling for the building of special "motor roads" to accommodate them. [12] This idea was opposed by the Motorists' Union, who feared that it would lead to motorists' losing the freedom to use public roads. [12]

United Kingdom

In 1926 the CTC discussed an unsuccessful motion calling for cycle tracks to be built on each side of roads for "the exclusive use of cyclists", and that cyclists could be taxed, providing the revenue was used for the provision of such tracks. [13]

The first dedicated roadside optional cycle tracks was built, as an experiment for the Ministry of Transport, beside Western Avenue between Hanger Lane and Greenford Road in 1934 opened by Leslie Hore-Belisha, the new Minister of Transport. [14] [15] It was thought that "the prospect of cycling in comfort as well as safety would be appreciated by most cyclists themselves". [15] Other early cycle tracks built before the 1939 Alness report included;

However, the idea ran into trenchant opposition from cycling groups, with the CTC distributing pamphlets warning against the threat of cycle paths. [3] [16]

In the 1930s, Britain’s Ministry of Transport built an extensive network of bike highways around the country—at least 280 miles of paved, protected infrastructure dedicated to cyclists alone. For decades, it was entirely forgotten—overgrown and overlooked—so much so that no one seems to remember that these lanes had existed at all.

[17]

Local CTC branches organised mass meetings to reject the use of cycle tracks and any suggestion that cyclists should be forced to use such devices. [18] In 1935, a packed general meeting of the CTC adopted a motion rejecting ministerial plans for cycle path construction. [3] The CTC were listened to, and the use of cycle tracks largely fell out of favour in the UK until the early 1970s. Since the 1930s, the established cycling lobby in the UK and Ireland has taken a critical and measured view of the utility and value of segregating cyclists. [19] In 1947, in response to official suggestions that cyclists should use cycle-tracks, the CTC adopted a motion expressing determined opposition to cycle paths alongside public roads. [3]

Post War

Makeshift bike racks in Slovenia (1956) Stojalo za kolesa v Prekmurju 1957.jpg
Makeshift bike racks in Slovenia (1956)

In the UK, little use of separate cycle track systems took place except in the so-called "new towns" such as Stevenage and Harlow. From the end of the 1960s in Nordic countries, the Swedish SCAFT guidelines on urban planning were highly influential and argued that non-motorised traffic must be segregated from motorised traffic wherever possible. Under the influence of these guidelines cyclists and pedestrians were treated as a homogeneous group to be catered for using similar facilities.

The guidelines strongly influenced cities such as Helsinki and Västerås to build large cycle path networks. By the late 1960s and 1970s, with the cyclists mainly gone, many German towns began removing cycle tracks so as to accommodate more car parking. Increasing traffic congestion and the 1970s oil shocks contributed to a resurgence in cycling in some countries, notably the Netherlands and Denmark. Outside of SCAFT-inspired developments in Nordic countries, the use of segregated cycle facilities was mainly confined to university towns with established populations of bicycle users. For example, in 1966, a 'Bicycle Lane' group in the City of Davis, California were elected to the City Council promising to push for bike lanes in the state of California, achieving them early in Davis. [20]

1970s

United Kingdom

Cycleway network in Milton Keynes. NCR routes 6 and 51 are highlighted in red. (Extracted from Openstreetmap.org (c) OpenStreetMap contributors). Milton Keynes Redway.gif
Cycleway network in Milton Keynes. NCR routes 6 and 51 are highlighted in red. (Extracted from Openstreetmap.org
© OpenStreetMap contributors).

In 1970 in the United Kingdom, the Milton Keynes Development Corporation produced the "Master Plan for Milton Keynes". [21] One of the important elements of this plan, and of its subsequent implementation, was the Milton Keynes redway system of segregated cycle/pedestrian paths. These are fully separated from the road system, only occasionally running alongside it. One of the aims of the redways was to make travel for pedestrians and cyclists convenient, safe, pleasant and accident free, but a study suggests that the system has only partially met these expectations. [22]

More recent statistical data shows that the accident rate for pedestrians in Milton Keynes is just 46% of the average for England and the rate for cyclists is 87%. However, the secluded semi-rural nature of many redways that make them pleasant by day can make some people feel unsafe to use them after dark.

Netherlands

In the Netherlands, bicycle use declined from the post-war period up to about 1975 as automobile use increased and commuting distances increased. Bicycle traffic policy was almost completely excluded from the national government vision. Things began to turn around in about 1972 with not just the oil crisis, but also the all-time peak in traffic deaths - especially among children, the most vulnerable of road users - leading to the mass Stop de Kindermoord ('Stop the Child Murder') protest. Local and national policy began to pay more attention to cycling. Bicycle use, which had been dropping dramatically, stabilized and even rose over the next two decades. [23] Amsterdam's traffic circulation plan of 1978 gave priority to bicycle facilities, in particular separated cycle tracks, which also meant taking some road space away from motor vehicles. The national government soon followed with subsidies for constructing bike paths alongside secondary and minor roads so that "lost ground could be made up". [9] Another famous traffic circulation plan that gave priority to the cyclist is effective in Groningen. [24]

United States

In 1971 in the United States, the California state government contracted with University of California, Los Angeles (UCLA) for the design of bikeways (bicycle paths, bicycle side-paths, bicycle lanes). [25] UCLA largely copied Dutch bicycle facilities practice (primarily sidepaths) to create their bikeway designs, but the derived designs were not made public. [26] The California Statewide Bicycle Committee (CSBC) was created in 1975, [27] initially composed of representatives of governmental and motoring organisations. When John Forester, a cyclist representative, became a member he concluded that the real motivation for moving cyclists aside was the convenience of motorists, although the stated reason was the safety of cyclists. [28]

When serious safety issues were identified with the proposed designs, the resulting cyclist opposition discredited the designs and prevented enactment of a mandatory side-path law. This forced the state to start over with new bikeway design standards in 1976. Those designs were subsequently adapted by the Association of American State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) to form the first edition of the AASHTO Guide for Bicycle Facilities, which is widely followed in the USA. [26]

1980s to present

Center lanes on Pennsylvania Avenue looking toward the U.S. Capitol Pennsylvania Avenue Bike Lanes.jpg
Center lanes on Pennsylvania Avenue looking toward the U.S. Capitol

The 1980s saw the start of experimental cycle route projects in Danish towns such as Århus, Odense and Herning, and the beginning of a large programme of cycle facilities construction as part of a "bicycle masterplan" in the Netherlands. Following the "bicycle boom" of the early 1980s, German towns began revisiting the concept. [29]

The use of segregated cycle facilities is promoted by a large segment of the cycling community, for example lane and path cyclists, and also by many organisations associated with the environmental movement. The rise of the "Green" movement in the 1990s has been accompanied by requests for the construction of cycle networks in many countries. This has led to various high-profile cycle network projects, in Montreal, Dublin, Portland, New York, Boston, [30] London and many other cities.

In the 2000s urban planners in several cities started to use models and simulations to estimate future bicycle paths usage and the extent to which they would improve community health outcomes. [31] [32] [33] [34]

United Kingdom

[Author Carlton] Reid and his collaborator, urban planner John Dales, are raising money on Kickstarter to continue their research, with the goal of restoring some of the network to use. (With two weeks to go, they’ve doubled their original fundraising goal.) They’ve already heard from cities on the network with money to spend. “Some of these cities look as though they’d be excited to work with us,” Reid says. “We’re going to work with the willing first.” Soon, it’s possible that these decades-old cycling highways could once again be part of Britain’s transportation network.

[35]


See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bike path</span> Bikeway separated from motorized traffic

A bike path or a cycle path is a bikeway separated from motorized traffic and dedicated to cycling or shared with pedestrians or other non-motorized users. In the US a bike path sometimes encompasses shared use paths, "multi-use path", or "Class III bikeway" is a paved path that has been designated for use by cyclists outside the right of way of a public road. It may or may not have a center divider or stripe to prevent head-on collisions. In the UK, a shared-use footway or multi-use path is for use by both cyclists and pedestrians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bike lane</span> Road traffic lane for cyclists

Bike lanes (US) or cycle lanes (UK) are types of bikeways (cycleways) with lanes on the roadway for cyclists only. In the United Kingdom, an on-road cycle-lane can be firmly restricted to cycles or advisory. In the United States, a designated bicycle lane or class II bikeway (Caltrans) is always marked by a solid white stripe on the pavement and is for 'preferential use' by bicyclists. There is also a class III bicycle route, which has roadside signs suggesting a route for cyclists, and urging sharing the road. A class IV separated bike way (Caltrans) is a bike lane that is physically separate from motor traffic and restricted to bicyclists only.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">John Forester (cyclist)</span> English industrial engineer and bicycle activist (1929–2020)

John Forester was an English-American industrial engineer, specializing in bicycle transportation engineering. A cycling activist, he was known as "the father of vehicular cycling", for creating the Effective Cycling program of bicycle training along with its associated book of the same title, and for coining the phrase "the vehicular cycling principle" – "Cyclists fare best when they act and are treated as drivers of vehicles". His published works also included Bicycle Transportation: A Handbook for Cycling Transportation Engineers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vehicular cycling</span> Practice of riding bicycles on roads while obeying roadway rules

Vehicular cycling is the practice of riding bicycles on roads in a manner that is in accordance with the principles for driving in traffic, and in a way that places responsibility for safety on the individual.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle transportation planning and engineering</span>

Bicycle transportation planning and engineering are the disciplines related to transportation engineering and transportation planning concerning bicycles as a mode of transport and the concomitant study, design and implementation of cycling infrastructure. It includes the study and design of dedicated transport facilities for cyclists as well as mixed-mode environments and how both of these examples can be made to work safely. In jurisdictions such as the United States it is often practiced in conjunction with planning for pedestrians as a part of active transportation planning.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle boulevard</span> Street designed as a bicycle route

A bicycle boulevard, sometimes referred to as a neighborhood greenway, neighborway, neighborhood bikeway or neighborhood byway is a type of bikeway composed of a low-speed street which has been "optimized" for bicycle traffic. Bicycle boulevards discourage cut-through motor-vehicle traffic but may allow local motor-vehicle traffic at low speeds. They are designed to give priority to bicyclists as through-going traffic. They are intended as a low-cost, politically popular way to create a connected network of streets with good bicyclist comfort and/or safety.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Milton Keynes redway system</span> Shared path network in Milton Keynes, England

The Milton Keynes redway system is an over 200 miles network of shared use paths for cyclists and pedestrians in Milton Keynes, Buckinghamshire, England. It is generally surfaced with red tarmac, and criss-crosses most of the city.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subway (underpass)</span> Underpass for pedestrians and cycles

A subway, also known as an underpass, is a grade-separated pedestrian crossing which crosses underneath a road or railway in order to entirely separate pedestrians and cyclists from motor or train traffic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycle track</span> Cycleway between a road and sidewalk, protected by barriers

A cycle track or cycleway (British) or bikeway, sometimes historically referred to as a sidepath, is a separate route for cycles and not motor vehicles. In some cases cycle tracks are also used by other users such as pedestrians and horse riders. A cycle track can be next to a normal road, and can either be a shared route with pedestrians or be made distinct from both the pavement and general roadway by vertical barriers or elevation differences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in Toronto</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bike East Bay</span>

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in Canada</span> Overview of cycling in Canada

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling infrastructure</span> Facilities for use by cyclists

Cycling infrastructure is all infrastructure cyclists are allowed to use. Bikeways include bike paths, bike lanes, cycle tracks, rail trails and, where permitted, sidewalks. Roads used by motorists are also cycling infrastructure, except where cyclists are barred such as many freeways/motorways. It includes amenities such as bike racks for parking, shelters, service centers and specialized traffic signs and signals. The more cycling infrastructure, the more people get about by bicycle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Shared-use path</span> Pathway for pedestrians and cyclists

A shared-use path, mixed-use path or multi-use pathway is a path which is "designed to accommodate the movement of pedestrians and cyclists". Examples of shared-use paths include sidewalks designated as shared-use, bridleways and rail trails. A shared-use path typically has a surface that is asphalt, concrete or firmly packed crushed aggregate. Shared-use paths differ from cycle tracks and cycle paths in that shared-use paths are designed to include pedestrians even if the primary anticipated users are cyclists.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Protected intersection</span> At-grade road junction in which cyclists and pedestrians are separated from cars

A protected intersection or protected junction, also known as a Dutch-style junction, is a type of at-grade road junction in which cyclists and pedestrians are separated from cars. The primary aim of junction protection is to help pedestrians and cyclists be and feel safer at road junctions.

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bicycle highway</span> Transport infrastructure

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in Halifax, Nova Scotia</span> Cycling infrastructure in Halifax, Nova Scotia

Cycling infrastructure in the Canadian city of Halifax, Nova Scotia includes most regular streets and roads, bike lanes, protected cycle tracks, local street bikeways, and multi-use pathways.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cycling in the Philippines</span> Popular mode of transport and sport in the Philippines

Cycling is a popular mode of transport and recreational sport in the Philippines.

References

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  2. ↑ "Lincoln Highway: Photos: From Wyoming Tales and Trails". www.wyomingtalesandtrails.com. Retrieved 29 August 2009.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 Oakley, William (1977). Winged Wheel: The History of the First Hundred Years of the Cyclists' Touring Club. Cyclists Touring Club. ISBN   978-0-902237-10-0.[ page needed ]
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  12. 1 2 Robert Davis (1992). Death on the Streets: Cars and the mythology of road safety. Leading Edge Press. ISBN   0-948135-46-8.
  13. ↑ "The Cyclists' Touring Club: Proposal for Special Cycle Tracks Defeated". The Times. 12 April 1926.
  14. ↑ "Roads Were Not Built For Cars | Ministry of Transport started one so why doesn't Britain have a Dutch-style bike path network?". www.roadswerenotbuiltforcars.com. Retrieved 11 September 2017.
  15. 1 2 "Roadside Cycle Tracks: An Experiment At Greenford". The Times. 7 June 1934.
  16. ↑ The Perils of the Cycle Path, Cyclists Touring Club, 1935
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  20. ↑ Skinner, Pelz will recount Davis bike lanes’ history – the Davis Enterprise, 11 April 2012
  21. ↑ Modern Milton Keynes: the master plan Archived 2012-07-28 at the Wayback Machine MK Web
  22. ↑ "Two decades of the Redway cycle paths in Milton Keynes" by John Franklin, Traffic Engineering + Control, July/August 1999
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  24. ↑ Soltani, Mahdokht. "Implementation and Results of the Traffic Circulation Plan in the City of Groningen (The Netherlands)".{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  25. ↑ UCLA School of Engineering and Applied Science; Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering (April 1972). "Bikeway Planning Criteria and Guidelines" (PDF). State of California, Division of Highways. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 22 January 2008.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  26. 1 2 Forester, John (August 1994). Bicycle Transportation . MIT Press. pp.  24–25. ISBN   0-262-56079-8.
  27. ↑ Ullrich, Howard. "SCR 47 Statewide Bicycle Committee" (PDF). Final Report. Retrieved 22 January 2008.
  28. ↑ Forester, John. "AMICUS CURIAE BRIEF, DAVID PROKOP v. CITY OF LOS ANGELES" (PDF). Retrieved 23 January 2008.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  29. ↑ Maddox, Heath (2001). "Another look at Germany's bicycle boom: implications for local transportation policy & planning strategy in the USA" (PDF). World Transport Policy & Practice. 7 (3): 44–8.
  30. ↑ Freedman, Nicole, "Boston Bike Czar calls city 'bike-friendly,' says 'ridership has doubled in three years'", The Boston Globe, 27 January 2011
  31. ↑ Su, Jason G.; Winters, Meghan; Nunes, Melissa; Brauer, Michael (2010-08-01). "Designing a route planner to facilitate and promote cycling in Metro Vancouver, Canada" . Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 44 (7): 495–505. Bibcode:2010TRPA...44..495S. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2010.03.015. ISSN   0965-8564.
  32. ↑ Zhu, Siying; Zhu, Feng (2020-10-01). "Multi-objective bike-way network design problem with space–time accessibility constraint" . Transportation. 47 (5): 2479–2503. doi:10.1007/s11116-019-10025-7. ISSN   1572-9435. S2CID   254944007.
  33. ↑ Ospina, Juan P.; Duque, Juan C.; Botero-Fernández, Verónica; Montoya, Alejandro (2022-05-01). "The maximal covering bicycle network design problem" . Transportation Research Part A: Policy and Practice. 159: 222–236. Bibcode:2022TRPA..159..222O. doi:10.1016/j.tra.2022.02.004. ISSN   0965-8564. S2CID   247905930.
  34. ↑ Gore, Ross; Lynch, Christopher J.; Jordan, Craig A.; Collins, Andrew; Robinson, R. Michael; Fuller, Gabrielle; Ames, Pearson; Keerthi, Prateek; Kandukuri, Yash (2022-08-24). "Estimating the Health Effects of Adding Bicycle and Pedestrian Paths at the Census Tract Level: Multiple Model Comparison". JMIR Public Health and Surveillance. 8 (8): e37379. doi: 10.2196/37379 . PMC   9453587 . PMID   36001362.
  35. ↑ Laskow, Sarah (11 May 2017). "Resurrecting the Forgotten Bike Highways of 1930s Britain". Atlas Obscura. Retrieved 17 May 2017.
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