Imperobator

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Imperobator
Temporal range: Late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) 71–70  Ma
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Imperobator Reconstructed Left Hind Limb.png
Left hind limb and full body reconstruction
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Clade: Dinosauria
Clade: Saurischia
Clade: Theropoda
Family:† Dromaeosauridae
Subfamily:† Unenlagiinae (?)
Genus:† Imperobator
Ely & Case, 2019
Species:
†I. antarcticus
Binomial name
†Imperobator antarcticus
Ely & Case, 2019

Imperobator ("powerful warrior") is a genus of probable unenlagiid paravian theropod dinosaurs, that lived during the Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous in what is now James Ross Island in Antarctica. Imperobator is one of only two non-avian theropods known from Antarctica, crossing over to the landmass when it was part of Gondwana. The only described specimen was found in 2003 by an expedition launched by the University of California Museum of Paleontology and initially described as a dromaeosaur in 2007. The fossil was formally described as a new genus in 2019, and later searches reported more fossils from the site including teeth and skull bones.

Contents

It was initially suggested that Imperobator may be one of the largest known paravians, comparable in size to gigantic dromaeosaurids such as Utahraptor and Austroraptor , but subsequent anatomical revisions suggested a body length similar to that of Neuquenraptor and Deinonychus . Because the preserved material appeared to lack the characteristic "sickle claw" of dromaeosaurs on the second digit, Imperobator was initially classified as a basal paravian of uncertain affinities, though later researchers found support for unenlagiine affinities.

It was discovered in the Cape Lamb Member strata of the Snow Hill Island Formation, which bears a variety of other fossils, many of them unique as they evolved in the isolation of Antarctica after the breakup of Gondwana. Imperobator coexisted with the ornithopod dinosaur Morrosaurus and bird Antarcticavis in addition to a menagerie of mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, and a pterosaur.

Discovery and naming

Aerial view photo of James Ross Island, where Imperobator was discovered. James Ross Island captured by NASA photographer James Ross.jpg
Aerial view photo of James Ross Island, where Imperobator was discovered.

Fossils of a large theropod dinosaur were unearthed in December 2003 by a fossil hunting expedition that had been mounted by the University of California Museum of Paleontology to the Naze Peninsula of James Ross Island, Antarctica to find fossils. [1] [2] [3] The peninsula bears several fossiliferous outcrops of marine sediment. These belong to the Cape Lamb Member of the Snow Hill Island Formation, which dates to the early Maastrictian age of the Late Cretaceous (~71 mya). [4] [2] The fossils were unearthed in 2003, consisting mostly of an incomplete isolated left pes including a portion of the tibia, an incomplete astragalus, a partial calcaneus and fibula, ungual, partial phalanges and metacarpals, though teeth are known as well. [1] [2] They were then deposited at the University of California Museum of Paleontology under catalog number UCMP 276000. However, additional fossils were located in the facilities of Eastern Washington University and the South Dakota School of Mines and Technology that pertain to UCMP 276000 including skull fragments which may be from the premaxilla, maxilla, and/or dentary as well as a caudal vertebra, more teeth, and pedal elements. [4] The third Antarctic Peninsula Paleontology Project expedition in 2011 and 2016 to the same locality found even more fossils from the UCMP 276000 individual, such as a tooth, incomplete pedal ungual, cranial fragments, and indeterminate bone shards, now in the collections of the American Museum of Natural History under number AMNH FARB 30894. [4] [5] [6] According to Lamanna et al. (2019), an ongoing description of the novel remains is in the works. [4]

The fossils were first reported in published literature in 2005, with the authors theorizing that the specimen was of a "primitive holdover of the original Gondwanan dinosaur assemblage", noting its less derived characteristics compared to other Maastrichtian dromaeosaurs. [3] [6] A more detailed paper on the theropod specimen was published in 2007, which believed that it was of a dromaeosaurid, dubbing it the "Naze dromaeosaur" after the site in which it was found. [1] [7] The idea of the fossils being from a dromaeosaur is contentious, as the pes lacks the distinct sickle claw in addition to other characteristics of dromaeosaurs. [2] [1] The specimen was formally described as the holotype of a new genus and species, Imperobator antarcticus, by American paleontologists Ricardo Ely and Judd Case in 2019. The generic name derives from the Latin for "powerful warrior". The specific name refers to the continent in which the specimen was discovered. [2]

Description

The holotype specimen measures approximately 45 centimetres (18 in) in length, and it was initially estimated that Imperobator would have measured 2 metres (6.6 ft) tall, [2] comparable to the size of the largest dromaeosaurs such as Utahraptor and Austroraptor . [8] However, the previous estimate was criticized for its lack of specification about the parameters for calculations, and reexaminations of the phalanx III-1 and distal metatarsal III of Imperobator suggested that they were much smaller than those of Austroraptor and more similar in size to those of Neuquenraptor and Deinonychus , which led to the revision of its body length estimate to around 2–3 metres (6.6–9.8 ft). [9] Despite prior assignment to Dromaeosauridae, Imperobator has since been assigned to the clade Paraves due to certain characteristics that differ from those of dromaeosaurids, including the lack of a sickle claw, the smooth surface of the distal metatarsal II and the lack of an ungual on the second pedal digit. [2] Undescribed cranial material preserves teeth from the maxilla and dentary, which were long, curved, and bladed like in other carnivorous paravians. [6] [4]

Leg

Imperobator is known only from fragmentary remains of the hindlimb, but it is still unique in several ways. The distal portion of the left tibia (shin bone) and some of the astragalus are preserved, though much of their characteristic features are missing due to erosion and frost. Both calcanea are preserved and are fused with the fibulae, a unique trait of the genus, with a fossa (shallow depression) on the internal surface of the calcanea for articulation with the astragalus. The calcanea have a circular, smooth surface divided by a groove running along its dorsal side. The left tarsal is longer anteroposteriorly than it is wide with a sub-triangular outline in anterior view. [2] [1]

The metatarsals are preserved but are fragmented and broken. Of the ones preserved, metatarsals II and IV are broken into three pieces and metatarsal III into two pieces. Metatarsal V may be preserved, but it is not definitively stated by Ely & Case (2019). Metatarsal II is unique from that of other paravians in that it is parallelogram-shaped in cross-section, contrary to the circular or ovate forms in other genera. It also may preserve another diagnostic trait, a medial slant at the end of the diaphysis (midsection of the long bone), though this could be a pathological trait. Metatarsal III is heavily damaged but shows a symmetrical distal articular end and a triangle-shaped proximal end in anterior view, as in other paravians. The fourth metatarsal has a long ridge running along its posterior edge with a wider proximal end proportionally compared to the other metatarsals. The second pedal digit is incomplete, but a proximal half of phalanx II and the ungual is known from it. The third is represented by a proximal phalanx fragment, which is poorly preserved. A complete proximal-most phalanx of the fourth digit was also found. The incomplete ungual has a prominent flexor heel, a trait shared by the Romanian paravian Balaur . [2] [10]

Classification

Hypothetical life restoration as a generalized paravian Imperobator UDL.png
Hypothetical life restoration as a generalized paravian

Before Imperobator was officially described, a paper published in 2007 announced the specimen and assigned it to the clade Dromaeosauridae; it was nicknamed the "Naze dromaeosaur". [1] This was problematic as UCMP 276000 lacked multiple characteristics of dromaeosaurids, including a prominent sickle claw. The paper naming and describing Imperobator assigned it only to the clade Paraves, with their phylogenetic analyses recovering this taxon as related to smaller members of the group: [2]

Paraves

In a modified version of the large phylogenetic analysis of Theropoda by Hartman et al. (2019), [11] Imperobator was recovered as a basal member of the Deinonychosauria outside of Dromaeosauridae, Unenlagiinae and Troodontidae. [6]

In 2024, the describers of the unenlagiine Diuqin considered Imperobator as a possible unenlagiine. [12] A detailed re-analysis of Imperobator was published independently later that year by Motta and colleagues. In all variations of their phylogenetic analyses, Imperobator was recovered as a member of the Unenlagiinae. The results of their pruned consensus tree under Extended Implied Weighting are displayed in the cladogram below: [9]

Paraves

Paleoenvironment

Reconstruction of the Snow Hill Island Formation's flora and fauna, with Imperobator in the left background. Snow Hill Island Formation paleoenvironment recon.jpg
Reconstruction of the Snow Hill Island Formation's flora and fauna, with Imperobator in the left background.

Imperobator is known solely from the Cape Lamb Member of the Snow Hill Island Formation in James Ross Island, an island in the James Ross Island group on the northeastern edge of the Antarctic Peninsula. The Snow Hill Island Formation is one of only two major dinosaur-bearing rock formations found on Antarctica, bearing all but two of the continent's named dinosaurs. [13] The floral composition, habitat, and climate are of one similar to modern volcanic arches. [14] During the time in which Imperobator lived, Earth's climate was much warmer and more humid than it is today and as a result Antarctica was without ice. The environment was mainly dominated by large dense conifer forests, cycads, and ginkgos. The animals inhabiting Antarctica at this time would still have had to endure long periods of darkness during the winter, much like in modern-day Antarctica. [4]

Imperobator's fossils bear some surface weathering and abrasion, which indicate that they have gone through minimal transport, reworking, and sub-aerial weathering. [2] This is in contrast to the holotype of the ankylosaur Antarctopelta , which likely floated out to sea and was buried by marine sediments on the ocean floor. [15] [16] From the site in which Imperobator was found, pollen grains from Asteraceae, the group containing sunflowers and daisies, are the oldest records of the family that were collected. [17] Some of the environment may have been wet and similar to peat bogs, as evidenced by Sphagnaceae (peat mosses) and several other groups like the clubmoss Selaginella, the firmoss group Lycopodiaceae, and the clade Ericaceae. [18] The Cape Lamb Member of the formation has yielded several other fossil remains, such as the herbivorous ornithopod Morrosaurus, an indeterminate hypsilophodontid ornithopod, [14] the avian Antarcticavis , [19] an indeterminate neornithine, [20] an unnamed pterosaur, [21] the elasmosaurid Vegasaurus ; [22] the mosasaurs Taniwhasaurus, [23] Liodon, [24] Plioplatecarpus, [23] and Mosasaurus , [24] sharks such as Notidanodon, [14] and several bony fishes from the groups Teleostei, [14] Actinopterygii, [25] Ichthyodectiformes, [14] and Sphenocephalidae. [14] Shelled ammonites, a kind of aquatic, shelled cephalopod, are found in the layers of the Cape Lamb Member. [14]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Troodontidae</span> Extinct family of bird-like dinosaurs

Troodontidae is a clade of bird-like theropod dinosaurs from the Late Jurassic to Late Cretaceous. During most of the 20th century, troodontid fossils were few and incomplete and they have therefore been allied, at various times, with many dinosaurian lineages. More recent fossil discoveries of complete and articulated specimens, have helped to increase understanding about this group. Anatomical studies, particularly studies of the most primitive troodontids, like Sinovenator, demonstrate striking anatomical similarities with Archaeopteryx and primitive dromaeosaurids, and demonstrate that they are relatives comprising a clade called Paraves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Deinonychosauria</span> Extinct clade of dinosaurs

Deinonychosauria is a clade of paravian dinosaurs which lived from the Late Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous periods. Fossils have been found across the globe in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia, South America, and Antarctica, with fossilized teeth giving credence to the possibility that they inhabited Australia as well. This group of dinosaurs are known for their sickle-shaped toe claws and features in the shoulder bones.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dromaeosauridae</span> Family of theropod dinosaurs

Dromaeosauridae is a family of feathered coelurosaurian theropod dinosaurs. They were generally small to medium-sized feathered carnivores that flourished in the Cretaceous Period. The name Dromaeosauridae means 'running lizards', from Greek δρομαῖος (dromaîos), meaning 'running at full speed', 'swift', and σαῦρος (saûros), meaning 'lizard'. In informal usage, they are often called raptors, a term popularized by the film Jurassic Park; several genera include the term "raptor" directly in their name, and popular culture has come to emphasize their bird-like appearance and speculated bird-like behavior.

<i>Buitreraptor</i> Dromaeosaurid dinosaur genus from the Late Cretaceous

Buitreraptor is a genus of dromaeosaurid dinosaurs that lived during the Late Cretaceous of Argentina at the Candeleros Formation. Buitreraptor was described in 2005 and the type species is Buitreraptor gonzalezorum. It was rooster-sized and had a very elongated head with many small teeth.

<i>Adasaurus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

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<i>Achillobator</i> Extinct dromaeosaurid genus from the Late Cretaceous

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<i>Pyroraptor</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Pyroraptor is an extinct genus of paravian dinosaur, probably a dromaeosaurid or unenlagiid, from the Late Cretaceous Ibero-Armorican island, of what is now southern France. It lived during the late Campanian and early Maastrichtian stages, approximately 72 million years ago. It is known from a single partial specimen that was found in Provence in 1992, after a forest fire. The animal was named Pyroraptor olympius by Allain and Taquet in 2000.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Unenlagiinae</span> Extinct subfamily of dinosaurs

Unenlagiinae is a subfamily of long-snouted paravian theropods. They are traditionally considered to be members of Dromaeosauridae, though some authors place them into their own family, Unenlagiidae, sometimes alongside the subfamily Halszkaraptorinae. Definitive members are known from South America, though some researchers include taxa from other continents within this subfamily based on phylogenetic analyses.

<i>Shanag</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Paraves</span> Clade of all dinosaurs that are more closely related to birds than to oviraptorosaurs

Paraves are a widespread group of theropod dinosaurs that originated in the Middle Jurassic period. In addition to the extinct dromaeosaurids, troodontids, anchiornithids, and possibly the scansoriopterygids, the group also contains the avialans, which include diverse extinct taxa as well as the over 10,000 species of living birds.

<i>Luanchuanraptor</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Eudromaeosauria</span> Extinct clade of dinosaurs

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<i>Pamparaptor</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Pamparaptor is an extinct genus of paravian theropod dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Portezuelo Formation of the Neuquén province in Argentine Patagonia. Its precise classification is uncertain, but the authors who described this taxon have argued that it is a dromaeosaurid. The genus contains a single species, P. micros, which is known from a single specimen consisting of a mostly complete and fully-articulated left foot, which preserves the iconic dromaeosaur-like "killing claw".

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Snow Hill Island Formation</span> Geologic formation in Antarctica

The Snow Hill Island Formation is an Early Maastrichtian geologic formation found on James Ross Island, James Ross Island group, Antarctica. Remains of a paravian theropod Imperobator antarcticus have been recovered from it, as well as the elasmarian ornithopods Trinisaura santamartaensis, "Biscoveosaurus" and Morrosaurus antarcticus, the ankylosaurian Antarctopelta oliveroi, and the shark Notidanodon sp. Alongside these described genera are also the remains of indeterminate elasmosaurids, lithostrotian titanosaurs and an indeterminate pterosaur.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Halszkaraptorinae</span> Extinct subfamily of dinosaurs

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<span class="mw-page-title-main">Biogeography of paravian dinosaurs</span> Geographic distribution of paravian dinosaurs

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<i>Overoraptor</i> Extinct genus of theropod dinosaurs

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<i>Kansaignathus</i> Extinct genus of dinosaurs

Kansaignathus is an extinct genus of dromaeosaurid theropod from the Late Cretaceous Yalovach Formation of Tajikistan. The genus contains only one species, the type species, K. sogdianus. The generic name of Kansaignathus comes from near the town of Konsoy where it was discovered and the Greek word "gnathos" meaning "jaw". The specific epithet "sogdianus" is derived from the historical region of Sogdiana, which was an ancient name for the Fergana Valley region where the fossil was discovered. Kansaignathus is known from a single right dentary bone and a few post-cranial bone fragments. It was the first, and so far the only, dinosaur from Tajikistan to be described and named.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Case, J. A.; Martin, J. E.; Reguero, M. (2007). "A dromaeosaur from the Maastrichtian of James Ross Island and the Late Cretaceous Antarctic dinosaur fauna". U.S. Geological Survey and the National Academies. Open-File Report: 26. Bibcode:2007usgs.rept...26C. doi: 10.3133/ofr20071047SRP083 .
  2. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ely, R. C.; Case, J. A. (2019). "Phylogeny of A New Gigantic Paravian (Theropoda; Coelurosauria; Maniraptora) From The Upper Cretaceous Of James Ross Island, Antarctica". Cretaceous Research. 101: 1–16. Bibcode:2019CrRes.101....1E. doi: 10.1016/j.cretres.2019.04.003 . S2CID   146325060.
  3. 1 2 Martin, James; Case, Judd (2005). "Fossil hunting in Antarctica". Geotimes Magazine. pp. 18–21.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lamanna, Matthew; Case, Judd; Roberts, Eric; Arbour, Victoria (2019). "Late Cretaceous non-avian dinosaurs from the James Ross Basin, Antarctica: description of new material, updated synthesis, biostratigraphy, and paleobiogeography". Advances in Polar Science. 30 (3): 228–250.
  5. ↑ Lamanna, O'Connor, Salisbury, Gorscak, Clarke, MacPhee, Roberts, Malinzak, Ely and Case, (2017). New material of non-avian dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of James Ross Island, Antarctica. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. Program and Abstracts 2017, 147.
  6. 1 2 3 4 Mortimer, Mickey. "Troodontidae". The Theropoda Database. Archived from the original on 5 Jan 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-26.
  7. ↑ Reguero, Marcelo A.; Tambussi, Claudia P.; Coria, Rodolfo A.; Marenssi, Sergio A. (2013). "Late Cretaceous dinosaurs from the James Ross Basin, West Antarctica". Geological Society, London, Special Publications. 381 (1): 99–116. Bibcode:2013GSLSP.381...99R. doi:10.1144/SP381.20. hdl: 11336/183603 . ISSN   0305-8719. S2CID   130027429.
  8. ↑ Novas, F. E.; Pol, D.; Canale, J. I.; Porfiri, J. D.; Calvo, J. O. (2008). "A bizarre Cretaceous theropod dinosaur from Patagonia and the evolution of Gondwanan dromaeosaurids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1659): 1101–7. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1554. ISSN   1471-2954. PMC   2679073 . PMID   19129109.
  9. 1 2 Motta, M. J.; Agnolín, F. L.; Brissón Egli, F.; Novas, F. E. (2024). "Unenlagiid affinities for Imperobator antarcticus (Paraves: Theropoda): paleobiogeographical implications". Ameghiniana. doi:10.5710/AMGH.13.11.2024.3604.
  10. ↑ Brusatte, Stephen L.; Vremir, Mátyás; Csiki-Sava, Zoltán; Turner, Alan H.; Watanabe, Akinobu; Erickson, Gregory M.; Norell, Mark A. (2013-02-13). "The Osteology of Balaur bondoc, an Island-Dwelling Dromaeosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Romania". Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History. 374: 1–100. doi:10.1206/798.1. ISSN   0003-0090. S2CID   59932467.
  11. ↑ Hartman, S.; Mortimer, M.; Wahl, W. R.; Lomax, D. R.; Lippincott, J.; Lovelace, D. M. (2019). "A new paravian dinosaur from the Late Jurassic of North America supports a late acquisition of avian flight". PeerJ. 7: e7247. doi: 10.7717/peerj.7247 . PMC   6626525 . PMID   31333906.
  12. ↑ Porfiri, Juan D.; Baiano, Mattia A.; dos Santos, Domenica D.; Gianechini, Federico A.; Pittman, Michael; Lamanna, Matthew C. (2024-06-14). "Diuqin lechiguanae gen. et sp. nov., a new unenlagiine (Theropoda: Paraves) from the Bajo de la Carpa Formation (Neuquén Group, Upper Cretaceous) of Neuquén Province, Patagonia, Argentina". BMC Ecology and Evolution. 24 (1): 77. Bibcode:2024BMCEE..24...77P. doi: 10.1186/s12862-024-02247-w . ISSN   2730-7182. PMC   11177497 . PMID   38872101.
  13. ↑ Smith, N. D., Makovicky, P. J., Pol, D., Hammer, W. R., & Currie, P. J. (2007). The dinosaurs of the Early Jurassic Hanson Formation of the central Transantarctic Mountains: phylogenetic review and synthesis. US Geological Survey and the National Academies, Short Research Paper, 3.
  14. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Reguero, Marcelo A.; Gasparini, Zulma; Olivero, Eduardo B.; Coria, Rodolfo A.; Fernández, Marta S.; O´gorman, José P.; Gouiric-Cavalli, Soledad; Hospitaleche, Carolina Acosta; Bona, Paula; Iglesias, Ari; Gelfo, Javier N.; Raffi, María E.; Moly, Juan José; Santillana, Sergio N.; Cárdenas, Magalí (2022-06-03). "Late Campanian-Early Maastrichtian Vertebrates From The James Ross Basin, West Antarctica: Updated Synthesis, Biostratigraphy, And Paleobiogeography". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 94 (suppl 1): e20211142. doi:10.1590/0001-3765202220211142. ISSN   0001-3765. PMID   35674550. S2CID   249359371.
  15. ↑ Mallon, Jordan C.; Henderson, Donald M.; McDonough, Colleen M.; Loughry, W.J. (2018). "A "bloat-and-float" taphonomic model best explains the upside-down preservation of ankylosaurs". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 497: 117–127. Bibcode:2018PPP...497..117M. doi: 10.1016/j.palaeo.2018.02.010 .
  16. ↑ Salgado, L.; Gasparini, Z. (2006). "Reappraisal of an ankylosaurian dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous of James Ross Island (Antarctica)" (PDF). Geodiversitas. 28 (1): 119–135. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-21.
  17. ↑ Barreda, Viviana D.; Palazzesi, Luis; Tellería, Maria C.; Olivero, Eduardo B.; Raine, J. Ian; Forest, Félix (2015). "Early evolution of the angiosperm clade Asteraceae in the Cretaceous of Antarctica". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 112 (35): 10989–10994. Bibcode:2015PNAS..11210989B. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1423653112 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   4568267 . PMID   26261324.
  18. ↑ Barreda, Viviana D.; Palazzesi, Luis; Olivero, Eduardo B. (2019). "When flowering plants ruled Antarctica: evidence from Cretaceous pollen grains". New Phytologist. 223 (2): 1023–1030. Bibcode:2019NewPh.223.1023B. doi:10.1111/nph.15823. hdl: 11336/120926 . ISSN   0028-646X. PMID   30924945.
  19. ↑ Cordes-Person, Amanda; Acosta Hospitaleche, Carolina; Case, Judd; Martin, James (2020-04-01). "An enigmatic bird from the lower Maastrichtian of Vega Island, Antarctica". Cretaceous Research. 108: 104314. Bibcode:2020CrRes.10804314C. doi: 10.1016/j.cretres.2019.104314 . ISSN   0195-6671. S2CID   213442204.
  20. ↑ Acosta Hospitaleche, Carolina; Gelfo, Javier N. (2015). "New Antarctic findings of Upper Cretaceous and lower Eocene loons (Aves: Gaviiformes)". Annales de Paléontologie. 101 (4): 315–324. Bibcode:2015AnPal.101..315A. doi:10.1016/j.annpal.2015.10.002. hdl: 11336/53690 .
  21. ↑ Kellner, Alexander W. A.; Rodrigues, Taissa; Costa, Fabiana R.; Weinschütz, Luiz C.; Figueiredo, Rodrigo G.; Souza, Geovane a. De; Brum, Arthur S.; Eleutério, Lúcia H. S.; Mueller, Carsten W.; Sayão, Juliana M. (2019-12-02). "Pterodactyloid pterosaur bones from Cretaceous deposits of the Antarctic Peninsula". Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 91 (suppl 2): e20191300. doi: 10.1590/0001-3765201920191300 . ISSN   0001-3765. PMID   31800676. S2CID   208642733.
  22. ↑ O’Gorman, José P.; Salgado, Leonardo; Olivero, Eduardo B.; Marenssi, Sergio A. (2015-05-04). "Vegasaurus molyi, gen. et sp. nov. (Plesiosauria, Elasmosauridae), from the Cape Lamb Member (lower maastrichtian) of the Snow Hill Island Formation, Vega Island, Antarctica, and remarks on Wedellian Elasmosauridae". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. 35 (3): e931285. Bibcode:2015JVPal..35E1285O. doi:10.1080/02724634.2014.931285. hdl: 11336/53416 . ISSN   0272-4634. S2CID   128965534.
  23. 1 2 Martin S. Fernandez; Zulma Gasparini (2012). "Campanian and Maastrichtian mosasaurs from Antarctic Peninsula and Patagonia, Argentina". Bulletin de la Société Géologique de France . 183 (2): 93–102. doi:10.2113/gssgfbull.183.2.93. S2CID   129228056.
  24. 1 2 Martin, J. E., Bell Jr, G. L., Case, J. A., Chaney, D. S., Fernández, M. A., Gasparini, Z., ... & Woodburne, M. O. (2002). Mosasaurs (Reptilia) from the Late Cretaceous of the Antarctic peninsula. In Antarctica at the Close of a Millennium, Eighth International Symposium on Antarctic Earth Sciences. Royal Society, New Zealand Bulletin (Vol. 35, pp. 293-299).
  25. ↑ Roberts, Eric M.; Lamanna, Matthew C.; Clarke, Julia A.; Meng, Jin; Gorscak, Eric; Sertich, Joseph J. W.; O'Connor, Patrick M.; Claeson, Kerin M.; MacPhee, Ross D. E. (2014-05-15). "Stratigraphy and vertebrate paleoecology of Upper Cretaceous–?lowest Paleogene strata on Vega Island, Antarctica". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 402: 55–72. Bibcode:2014PPP...402...55R. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2014.03.005. ISSN   0031-0182.
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