Nigrostriatal pathway

Last updated
Nigrostriatal pathway
Nigrostriatal tract.png
Nigrostriatal pathway (Left and Right in red).
Nigrostriatal pathway.svg
The nigrostriatal pathway is shown here in solid blue, connecting the substantia nigra with the dorsal striatum.
Anatomical terminology

The nigrostriatal pathway is a bilateral dopaminergic pathway in the brain that connects the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) in the midbrain with the dorsal striatum (i.e., the caudate nucleus and putamen) in the forebrain. It is one of the four major dopamine pathways in the brain, and is critical in the production of movement as part of a system called the basal ganglia motor loop. Dopaminergic neurons of this pathway release dopamine from axon terminals that synapse onto GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs), also known as spiny projection neurons (SPNs), [1] [2] located in the striatum.

Contents

Degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the SNc is one of the main pathological features of Parkinson's disease, [3] leading to a marked reduction in dopamine function and the symptomatic motor deficits of Parkinson's disease including hypokinesia, tremors, rigidity, and postural imbalance.

Anatomy

The connection between the substantia nigra pars compacta and the dorsal striatum is mediated via dopaminergic axons.

Substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc)

The substantia nigra is located in the ventral midbrain of each hemisphere. It has two distinct parts, the pars compacta (SNc) and the pars reticulata (SNr). The pars compacta contains dopaminergic neurons from the A9 cell group that forms the nigrostriatal pathway that, by supplying dopamine to the striatum, relays information to the basal ganglia. In contrast, the pars reticulata contains mostly GABAergic neurons.

The SNc is composed of a thin band of cells that overlies the SNr and is situated laterally to the A10 group of dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) that forms the mesolimbic dopamine pathway. The SNc is easily visualized in human brain sections because the dopamine neurons contain a black pigment called neuromelanin which is known to accumulate with age. [4] The dopaminergic cell bodies in the SNc are densely packed with approximately 200,000 to 420,000 dopamine cells in human SNc and 8,000 to 12,000 dopamine cells in mouse SNc. [5] These dopamine cell bodies are localized to one of two chemically defined layers. [6] Those in the upper layer (or dorsal tier) contain a binding protein called calbindin-D28K which can buffer calcium levels inside the cell when it becomes too high or toxic. Dopamine cells in the lower layer (or ventral tier) lack this protein and are more vulnerable to the effects of neurotoxins (e.g. MPTP) that can cause Parkinson disease-like symptoms. [7] [8] The dorsal tier dopamine cells have dendrites that radiate horizontally across the pars compacta, whereas ventral tier dopamine cells have dendrites that extend ventrally into the pars reticulata. [6] [9]

Dopaminergic axons

The axons from dopamine neurons emanate from a primary dendrite and project ipsilaterally (on the same side) via the medial forebrain bundle to the dorsal striatum. There is a rough topographical correlation between the anatomical localization of the dopamine cell body within the SNc and the area of termination in the dorsal striatum. Dopaminergic cells in the lateral parts of the SNc project mainly to the lateral and caudal (posterior) parts of the striatum, whereas dopamine cells in the medial SNc project to the medial striatum. [10] [9] In addition, dopamine cells in the dorsal tier project to the ventromedial striatum, whereas the ventral tier neurons project to the dorsal caudate nucleus and putamen. [6] [9] In general, there is a greater density of dopaminergic input to the dorsolateral striatum. [9]

Each dopamine neuron has an extremely large unmyelinated axonal arborization which can innervate up to 6% of the striatal volume in a rat. [11]  Although all SNc dopamine cells project to both the striosome (or patch) and matrix neurochemical compartments of the striatum, most of the axonal territory of a dorsal tier neuron is in the matrix compartment while the majority of the axonal field of ventral tier neurons is in the striosomes. [6] [10] [11] Nigrostriatal dopamine axons can also give rise to axon collaterals that project to other brain regions. For example, some SNc nigrostriatal dopamine axons send axon collaterals to the pedunculopontine nucleus, ventral pallidum, subthalamic nucleus, globus pallidus, amygdala, and thalamus. [6] [9] [12]

A small number of SNc dorsal tier dopamine neurons also project directly to the cortex, although most of the dopaminergic innervation of the cortex comes from the adjacent VTA dopamine neurons. [9]

Dorsal striatum

The dorsal striatum is located in the subcortical region of the forebrain. In primates and other mammals, it is divided by the anterior limb of a white matter tract called the internal capsule [13] into two parts: the caudate nucleus and the putamen. [14]  In rodents, the internal capsule is poorly developed such that the caudate and putamen are not separated but form one large entity called the caudate putamen (CPu). [15] [16] The majority (about 95%) of cells in the dorsal striatum are GABAergic medium spiny neurons (MSNs), also known as spiny projection neurons (SPNs). Approximately half of these MSNs contain dopamine D1 receptors and project directly to the substantia nigra to form the direct pathway of the basal ganglia, whereas the other half express dopamine D2 receptors that project indirectly to the substantia nigra via the globus pallidus and subthalamic nucleus to form the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia. [17] The remaining 5% of cells are interneurons that are either cholinergic neurons [18] or one of several types of GABAergic neurons. [19] The axons and dendrites of these interneurons stay within the striatum.

The caudate nucleus and putamen receive excitatory information from all areas of the cerebral cortex. [20] These glutamatergic inputs are generally topographically arranged such that the putamen takes information largely from the sensorimotor cortex, whereas the caudate nucleus obtains information largely from the association cortex. [20] In addition, the dorsal striatum receives excitatory inputs from other brain structures like the thalamus, [21] and minor excitatory inputs from the hippocampus and amygdala.

The dorsal striatum contains neurochemically defined compartments called striosomes (also known as patches) that exhibit dense μ-opioid receptor staining embedded within a matrix compartment that contains higher acetylcholinesterase and calbindin-D28K. [22]

The dopaminergic axon terminals of the nigrostriatal pathway synapse onto GABAergic MSNs in the dorsal striatum. They form synapses on the cell body and dendritic shaft regions but mostly on the necks of dendritic spines that also receive glutamatergic input to the heads of the same dendritic spines. [1]

Function

The main function of the nigrostriatal pathway is to influence voluntary movement through basal ganglia motor loops. Along with the mesolimbic and mesocortical dopaminergic pathways, the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway can also influence other brain functions, including cognition, [23] reward, and addiction. [24] Nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons exhibit tonic and phasic patterns of neuronal firing activity. This can lead to different patterns of dopamine release from the axon terminals in the dorsal striatum and also from the cell body (soma) and dendrites in the SNc and SNr. [25] [26] As well as releasing dopamine, some axons in the nigrostriatal pathway can also co-release GABA. [27] [28]

Basal ganglia connections showing direct and indirect pathways for movement. The nigrostriatal dopamine pathway is shown in pink. Basal ganglia diagram.svg
Basal ganglia connections showing direct and indirect pathways for movement. The nigrostriatal dopamine pathway is shown in pink.

The nigrostriatal pathway influences movement through two pathways, the direct pathway of movement and the indirect pathway of movement. [29] [30]

Direct pathway of movement

The direct pathway is involved in facilitation of wanted movements. The projections from dopamine D1 receptors containing medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus and putamen synapse onto tonically active GABAergic cells in the substantia nigra pars reticulata and the internal segment of the globus pallidus (GPi), which then project to the thalamus. Because the striatonigral / striatoentopeduncular and nigrothalamic pathways are inhibitory, activation of the direct pathway creates an overall net excitatory effect on the thalamus and on movement generated by the motor cortex.

Indirect pathway of movement

The indirect pathway is involved in suppressing unwanted movement. The projections from dopamine D2 receptors containing medium spiny neurons in the caudate nucleus and putamen synapse onto tonically active GABAergic cells in the external segment of the globus pallidus (GPe), which then projects to the substantia nigra pars reticulata via the excitatory subthalmic nucleus (STN). Because the striatopallidal and nigrothalamic pathways are inhibitory but the subthalamic to nigra pathway is excitatory, activation of the indirect pathway creates an overall net inhibitory effect on the thalamus and on movement by the motor cortex.

Clinical significance

Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is characterized by severe motor problems, mainly hypokinesia, rigidity, tremors, and postural imbalance. [31] Loss of dopamine neurons in the nigrostriatal pathway is one of the main pathological features of Parkinson's disease. [32] Degeneration of dopamine producing neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta and the putamen-caudate complex leads to diminished concentrations of dopamine in the nigrostriatal pathway, leading to reduced function and the characteristic symptoms. [33] The symptoms of the disease typically do not show themselves until 80-90% of dopamine function has been lost.

Another hypothesis suggests that Parkinson's disease is an imbalance between dopamine (D.A.) and acetylcholine (ACh) in the dorsal striatum, and not just dopamine deficiency. [34]

Levodopa-induced dyskinesia

Levodopa-induced dyskinesias (LID) is a complication associated with long-term use of the Parkinson's treatment L-DOPA, characterized by involuntary movement and muscle contractions. This disorder occurs in up to 90% of patients after 9 years of treatment. The use of L-DOPA in patients can lead to interruption of nigrostriatal dopamine projections as well as changes in the post-synaptic neurons in the basal ganglia. [35]

Schizophrenia

Presynaptic dopamine metabolism is altered in schizophrenia. [36] [37]

Other dopamine pathways

Other major dopamine pathways include:

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Putamen</span> Round structure at the base of the forebrain

The putamen is a round structure located at the base of the forebrain (telencephalon). The putamen and caudate nucleus together form the dorsal striatum. It is also one of the structures that compose the basal nuclei. Through various pathways, the putamen is connected to the substantia nigra, the globus pallidus, the claustrum, and the thalamus, in addition to many regions of the cerebral cortex. A primary function of the putamen is to regulate movements at various stages and influence various types of learning. It employs GABA, acetylcholine, and enkephalin to perform its functions. The putamen also plays a role in degenerative neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's disease.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Striatum</span> Nucleus in the basal ganglia of the brain

The striatum, or corpus striatum, is a nucleus in the subcortical basal ganglia of the forebrain. The striatum is a critical component of the motor and reward systems; receives glutamatergic and dopaminergic inputs from different sources; and serves as the primary input to the rest of the basal ganglia.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Substantia nigra</span> Structure in the basal ganglia of the brain

The substantia nigra (SN) is a basal ganglia structure located in the midbrain that plays an important role in reward and movement. Substantia nigra is Latin for "black substance", reflecting the fact that parts of the substantia nigra appear darker than neighboring areas due to high levels of neuromelanin in dopaminergic neurons. Parkinson's disease is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basal ganglia</span> Group of subcortical nuclei involved in the motor and reward systems

The basal ganglia (BG), or basal nuclei, are a group of subcortical nuclei found in the brains of vertebrates. In humans and some primates, differences exist, primarily in the division of the globus pallidus into external and internal regions, and in the division of the striatum. Positioned at the base of the forebrain and the top of the midbrain, they have strong connections with the cerebral cortex, thalamus, brainstem and other brain areas. The basal ganglia are associated with a variety of functions, including regulating voluntary motor movements, procedural learning, habit formation, conditional learning, eye movements, cognition, and emotion.

The mesolimbic pathway, sometimes referred to as the reward pathway, is a dopaminergic pathway in the brain. The pathway connects the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain to the ventral striatum of the basal ganglia in the forebrain. The ventral striatum includes the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Globus pallidus</span> Structure of the basal ganglia of the brain

The globus pallidus (GP), also known as paleostriatum or dorsal pallidum, is a subcortical structure of the brain. It consists of two adjacent segments, one external, known in rodents simply as the globus pallidus, and one internal, known in rodents as the entopeduncular nucleus. It is part of the telencephalon, but retains close functional ties with the subthalamus in the diencephalon – both of which are part of the extrapyramidal motor system. The globus pallidus is a major component of the basal ganglia, with principal inputs from the striatum, and principal direct outputs to the thalamus and the substantia nigra. The latter is made up of similar neuronal elements, has similar afferents from the striatum, similar projections to the thalamus, and has a similar synaptology. Neither receives direct cortical afferents, and both receive substantial additional inputs from the intralaminar thalamus.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nucleus accumbens</span> Region of the basal forebrain

The nucleus accumbens is a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus. The nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle collectively form the ventral striatum. The ventral striatum and dorsal striatum collectively form the striatum, which is the main component of the basal ganglia. The dopaminergic neurons of the mesolimbic pathway project onto the GABAergic medium spiny neurons of the nucleus accumbens and olfactory tubercle. Each cerebral hemisphere has its own nucleus accumbens, which can be divided into two structures: the nucleus accumbens core and the nucleus accumbens shell. These substructures have different morphology and functions.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Dopaminergic pathways</span> Projection neurons in the brain that synthesize and release dopamine

Dopaminergic pathways in the human brain are involved in both physiological and behavioral processes including movement, cognition, executive functions, reward, motivation, and neuroendocrine control. Each pathway is a set of projection neurons, consisting of individual dopaminergic neurons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ventral tegmental area</span> Group of neurons on the floor of the midbrain

The ventral tegmental area (VTA), also known as the ventral tegmental area of Tsai, or simply ventral tegmentum, is a group of neurons located close to the midline on the floor of the midbrain. The VTA is the origin of the dopaminergic cell bodies of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system and other dopamine pathways; it is widely implicated in the drug and natural reward circuitry of the brain. The VTA plays an important role in a number of processes, including reward cognition and orgasm, among others, as well as several psychiatric disorders. Neurons in the VTA project to numerous areas of the brain, ranging from the prefrontal cortex to the caudal brainstem and several regions in between.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Subthalamic nucleus</span> Small lens-shaped nucleus in the brain

The subthalamic nucleus (STN) is a small lens-shaped nucleus in the brain where it is, from a functional point of view, part of the basal ganglia system. In terms of anatomy, it is the major part of the subthalamus. As suggested by its name, the subthalamic nucleus is located ventral to the thalamus. It is also dorsal to the substantia nigra and medial to the internal capsule. It was first described by Jules Bernard Luys in 1865, and the term corpus Luysi or Luys' body is still sometimes used.

Hypokinesia is one of the classifications of movement disorders, and refers to decreased bodily movement. Hypokinesia is characterized by a partial or complete loss of muscle movement due to a disruption in the basal ganglia. Hypokinesia is a symptom of Parkinson's disease shown as muscle rigidity and an inability to produce movement. It is also associated with mental health disorders and prolonged inactivity due to illness, amongst other diseases.

The pars reticulata (SNpr) is a portion of the substantia nigra and is located lateral to the pars compacta. Most of the neurons that project out of the pars reticulata are inhibitory GABAergic neurons.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Primate basal ganglia</span>

The basal ganglia form a major brain system in all species of vertebrates, but in primates there are special features that justify a separate consideration. As in other vertebrates, the primate basal ganglia can be divided into striatal, pallidal, nigral, and subthalamic components. In primates, however, there are two pallidal subdivisions called the external globus pallidus (GPe) and internal globus pallidus (GPi). Also in primates, the dorsal striatum is divided by a large tract called the internal capsule into two masses named the caudate nucleus and the putamen—in most other species no such division exists, and only the striatum as a whole is recognized. Beyond this, there is a complex circuitry of connections between the striatum and cortex that is specific to primates. This complexity reflects the difference in functioning of different cortical areas in the primate brain.

The pars compacta (SNpc) is one of two subdivisions of the substantia nigra of the midbrain ; it is situated medial to the pars reticulata. It is formed by dopaminergic neurons. It projects to the striatum and portions of the cerebral cortex. It is functionally involved in fine motor control.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Medium spiny neuron</span> Type of GABAergic neuron in the striatum

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs), also known as spiny projection neurons (SPNs), are a special type of GABAergic inhibitory cell representing 95% of neurons within the human striatum, a basal ganglia structure. Medium spiny neurons have two primary phenotypes : D1-type MSNs of the direct pathway and D2-type MSNs of the indirect pathway. Most striatal MSNs contain only D1-type or D2-type dopamine receptors, but a subpopulation of MSNs exhibit both phenotypes.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">External globus pallidus</span> Part of the globus pallidus

The external globus pallidus combines with the internal globus pallidus (GPi) to form the globus pallidus, an anatomical subset of the basal ganglia. Globus pallidus means "pale globe" in Latin, indicating its appearance. The external globus pallidus is the segment of the globus pallidus that is relatively further (lateral) from the midline of the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Basal ganglia disease</span> Group of physical problems resulting from basal ganglia dysfunction

Basal ganglia disease is a group of physical problems that occur when the group of nuclei in the brain known as the basal ganglia fail to properly suppress unwanted movements or to properly prime upper motor neuron circuits to initiate motor function. Research indicates that increased output of the basal ganglia inhibits thalamocortical projection neurons. Proper activation or deactivation of these neurons is an integral component for proper movement. If something causes too much basal ganglia output, then the ventral anterior (VA) and ventral lateral (VL) thalamocortical projection neurons become too inhibited, and one cannot initiate voluntary movement. These disorders are known as hypokinetic disorders. However, a disorder leading to abnormally low output of the basal ganglia leads to reduced inhibition, and thus excitation, of the thalamocortical projection neurons which synapse onto the cortex. This situation leads to an inability to suppress unwanted movements. These disorders are known as hyperkinetic disorders.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blocq's disease</span> Loss of memory of specialized movements causing the inability to maintain an upright posture

Blocq's disease was first considered by Paul Blocq (1860–1896), who described this phenomenon as the loss of memory of specialized movements causing the inability to maintain an upright posture, despite normal function of the legs in the bed. The patient is able to stand up, but as soon as the feet are on the ground, the patient cannot hold himself upright nor walk; however when lying down, the subject conserved the integrity of muscular force and the precision of movements of the lower limbs. The motivation of this study came when a fellow student Georges Marinesco (1864) and Paul published a case of parkinsonian tremor (1893) due to a tumor located in the substantia nigra.

The ventral pallidum (VP) is a structure within the basal ganglia of the brain. It is an output nucleus whose fibres project to thalamic nuclei, such as the ventral anterior nucleus, the ventral lateral nucleus, and the medial dorsal nucleus. The VP is a core component of the reward system which forms part of the limbic loop of the basal ganglia, a pathway involved in the regulation of motivational salience, behavior, and emotions. It is involved in addiction.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop</span> System of neural circuits in the brain

The cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop is a system of neural circuits in the brain. The loop involves connections between the cortex, the basal ganglia, the thalamus, and back to the cortex. It is of particular relevance to hyperkinetic and hypokinetic movement disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as to mental disorders of control, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), and Tourette syndrome.

References

  1. 1 2 David Smith, A.; Paul Bolam, J. (1990-07-01). "The neural network of the basal ganglia as revealed by the study of synaptic connections of identified neurones". Trends in Neurosciences. 13 (7): 259–265. doi:10.1016/0166-2236(90)90106-K. ISSN   0166-2236. PMID   1695400. S2CID   4018397.
  2. ↑ Tritsch, NX; Ding, JB; Sabatini, BL (Oct 2012). "Dopaminergic neurons inhibit striatal output through non-canonical release of GABA". Nature. 490 (7419): 262–6. Bibcode:2012Natur.490..262T. doi:10.1038/nature11466. PMC   3944587 . PMID   23034651.
  3. ↑ Diaz, Jaime. How Drugs Influence Behavior. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1996.
  4. ↑ Zucca, Fabio A.; Basso, Emy; Cupaioli, Francesca A.; Ferrari, Emanuele; Sulzer, David; Casella, Luigi; Zecca, Luigi (January 2014). "Neuromelanin of the human substantia nigra: an update". Neurotoxicity Research. 25 (1): 13–23. doi:10.1007/s12640-013-9435-y. ISSN   1476-3524. PMID   24155156. S2CID   8372724.
  5. ↑ Brichta, Lars; Greengard, Paul (2014). "Molecular determinants of selective dopaminergic vulnerability in Parkinson's disease: an update". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 8: 152. doi: 10.3389/fnana.2014.00152 . ISSN   1662-5129. PMC   4266033 . PMID   25565977.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 Prensa, L.; Giménez-Amaya, J. M.; Parent, A.; Bernácer, J.; Cebrián, C. (2009). "The Nigrostriatal Pathway: Axonal Collateralization and Compartmental Specificity". Birth, Life and Death of Dopaminergic Neurons in the Substantia Nigra. pp. 49–58. doi:10.1007/978-3-211-92660-4_4. ISBN   978-3-211-92659-8. ISSN   0303-6995. PMID   20411767.{{cite book}}: |journal= ignored (help)
  7. ↑ Nemoto, C.; Hida, T.; Arai, R. (1999-10-30). "Calretinin and calbindin-D28k in dopaminergic neurons of the rat midbrain: a triple-labeling immunohistochemical study". Brain Research. 846 (1): 129–136. doi:10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01950-2. ISSN   0006-8993. PMID   10536220. S2CID   26684957.
  8. ↑ Dopeso-Reyes, Iria G.; Rico, Alberto J.; Roda, Elvira; Sierra, Salvador; Pignataro, Diego; Lanz, Maria; Sucunza, Diego; Chang-Azancot, Luis; Lanciego, Jose L. (2014). "Calbindin content and differential vulnerability of midbrain efferent dopaminergic neurons in macaques". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 8: 146. doi: 10.3389/fnana.2014.00146 . ISSN   1662-5129. PMC   4253956 . PMID   25520629.
  9. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Haber, S. N. (2014-12-12). "The place of dopamine in the cortico-basal ganglia circuit". Neuroscience. 282: 248–257. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.008. ISSN   1873-7544. PMC   5484174 . PMID   25445194.
  10. 1 2 Gerfen, C. R.; Herkenham, M.; Thibault, J. (December 1987). "The neostriatal mosaic: II. Patch- and matrix-directed mesostriatal dopaminergic and non-dopaminergic systems". The Journal of Neuroscience. 7 (12): 3915–3934. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.07-12-03915.1987. ISSN   0270-6474. PMC   6569093 . PMID   2891799.
  11. 1 2 Matsuda, Wakoto; Furuta, Takahiro; Nakamura, Kouichi C.; Hioki, Hiroyuki; Fujiyama, Fumino; Arai, Ryohachi; Kaneko, Takeshi (2009-01-14). "Single nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons form widely spread and highly dense axonal arborizations in the neostriatum". The Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (2): 444–453. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4029-08.2009. ISSN   1529-2401. PMC   6664950 . PMID   19144844.
  12. ↑ Prensa, L.; Parent, A. (2001-09-15). "The nigrostriatal pathway in the rat: A single-axon study of the relationship between dorsal and ventral tier nigral neurons and the striosome/matrix striatal compartments". The Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (18): 7247–7260. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-18-07247.2001. ISSN   1529-2401. PMC   6762986 . PMID   11549735.
  13. ↑ Emos, Marc Christopher; Agarwal, Sanjeev (2019), "Neuroanatomy, Internal Capsule", StatPearls, StatPearls Publishing, PMID   31194338 , retrieved 2019-10-06
  14. ↑ Mai, Jürgen K. (14 December 2015). Atlas of the human brain. Majtanik, Milan,, Paxinos, George, 1944- (4th ed.). Amsterdam. ISBN   9780128028001. OCLC   934406284.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  15. ↑ Coizet, Veronique; Heilbronner, Sarah R.; Carcenac, Carole; Mailly, Philippe; Lehman, Julia F.; Savasta, Marc; David, Oivier; Deniau, Jean-Michel; Groenewegen, Henk J.; Haber, Suzanne N. (March 8, 2017). "Organization of the Anterior Limb of the Internal Capsule in the Rat". The Journal of Neuroscience. 37 (10): 2539–2554. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3304-16.2017. ISSN   1529-2401. PMC   5354315 . PMID   28159909.
  16. ↑ Paxinos, George, 1944- (2013-11-07). The rat brain in stereotaxic coordinates. Watson, Charles, 1943- (Seventh ed.). Amsterdam. ISBN   9780123919496. OCLC   859555862.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  17. ↑ Gerfen, Charles R.; Surmeier, D. James (2011). "Modulation of striatal projection systems by dopamine". Annual Review of Neuroscience. 34: 441–466. doi:10.1146/annurev-neuro-061010-113641. ISSN   1545-4126. PMC   3487690 . PMID   21469956.
  18. ↑ Gonzales, Kalynda K.; Smith, Yoland (September 2015). "Cholinergic interneurons in the dorsal and ventral striatum: anatomical and functional considerations in normal and diseased conditions". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 1349 (1): 1–45. Bibcode:2015NYASA1349....1G. doi:10.1111/nyas.12762. ISSN   1749-6632. PMC   4564338 . PMID   25876458.
  19. ↑ Tepper, James M.; Koós, Tibor; Ibanez-Sandoval, Osvaldo; Tecuapetla, Fatuel; Faust, Thomas W.; Assous, Maxime (2018). "Heterogeneity and Diversity of Striatal GABAergic Interneurons: Update 2018". Frontiers in Neuroanatomy. 12: 91. doi: 10.3389/fnana.2018.00091 . ISSN   1662-5129. PMC   6235948 . PMID   30467465.
  20. 1 2 Haber, Suzanne N. (March 2016). "Corticostriatal circuitry". Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience. 18 (1): 7–21. doi:10.31887/DCNS.2016.18.1/shaber. ISSN   1958-5969. PMC   4826773 . PMID   27069376.
  21. ↑ Smith, Yoland; Galvan, Adriana; Ellender, Tommas J.; Doig, Natalie; Villalba, Rosa M.; Huerta-Ocampo, Icnelia; Wichmann, Thomas; Bolam, J. Paul (2014). "The thalamostriatal system in normal and diseased states". Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience. 8: 5. doi: 10.3389/fnsys.2014.00005 . ISSN   1662-5137. PMC   3906602 . PMID   24523677.
  22. ↑ Brimblecombe, Katherine R.; Cragg, Stephanie J. (February 15, 2017). "The Striosome and Matrix Compartments of the Striatum: A Path through the Labyrinth from Neurochemistry toward Function". ACS Chemical Neuroscience. 8 (2): 235–242. doi: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00333 . ISSN   1948-7193. PMID   27977131.
  23. ↑ Boot, Nathalie; Baas, Matthijs; van Gaal, Simon; Cools, Roshan; De Dreu, Carsten K. W. (July 2017). "Creative cognition and dopaminergic modulation of fronto-striatal networks: Integrative review and research agenda". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 78: 13–23. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.04.007. ISSN   1873-7528. PMID   28419830. S2CID   21315163.
  24. ↑ Wise, RA (October 2009). "Roles for nigrostriatal--not just mesocorticolimbic--dopamine in reward and addiction". Trends in Neurosciences. 32 (10): 517–524. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2009.06.004. PMC   2755633 . PMID   19758714.
  25. ↑ Rice, M. E.; Patel, J. C.; Cragg, S. J. (2011-12-15). "Dopamine release in the basal ganglia". Neuroscience. 198: 112–137. doi:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.08.066. ISSN   1873-7544. PMC   3357127 . PMID   21939738.
  26. ↑ Rice, Margaret E.; Patel, Jyoti C. (2015-07-05). "Somatodendritic dopamine release: recent mechanistic insights". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences. 370 (1672): 20140185. doi:10.1098/rstb.2014.0185. ISSN   1471-2970. PMC   4455754 . PMID   26009764.
  27. ↑ Tritsch, Nicolas X.; Granger, Adam J.; Sabatini, Bernardo L. (March 2016). "Mechanisms and functions of GABA co-release". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 17 (3): 139–145. doi:10.1038/nrn.2015.21. ISSN   1471-0048. PMC   6980171 . PMID   26865019.
  28. ↑ Trudeau, Louis-Eric; Hnasko, Thomas S.; Wallén-Mackenzie, Asa; Morales, Marisela; Rayport, Steven; Sulzer, David (2014). The multilingual nature of dopamine neurons. Progress in Brain Research. Vol. 211. pp. 141–164. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-63425-2.00006-4. ISBN   9780444634252. ISSN   1875-7855. PMC   4565795 . PMID   24968779.
  29. ↑ Kravitz, Alexxai V.; Kreitzer, Anatol C. (June 2012). "Striatal mechanisms underlying movement, reinforcement, and punishment". Physiology. 27 (3): 167–177. doi:10.1152/physiol.00004.2012. ISSN   1548-9221. PMC   3880226 . PMID   22689792.
  30. ↑ Kravitz, Alexxai V.; Freeze, Benjamin S.; Parker, Philip R. L.; Kay, Kenneth; Thwin, Myo T.; Deisseroth, Karl; Kreitzer, Anatol C. (2010-07-29). "Regulation of parkinsonian motor behaviours by optogenetic control of basal ganglia circuitry". Nature. 466 (7306): 622–626. Bibcode:2010Natur.466..622K. doi:10.1038/nature09159. ISSN   1476-4687. PMC   3552484 . PMID   20613723.
  31. ↑ Cenci, Angela M (2006). "Post- versus presynaptic plastic ity in L-DOPA-induced dyskinesia" (PDF). Journal of Neurochemistry. 99 (2): 381–92. doi:10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04124.x. PMID   16942598. S2CID   9649270.
  32. ↑ Deumens, Ronald (21 June 2002). "Modeling Parkinson's Disease in Rats: An Evaluation of 6-OHDA Lesions of the Nigrostriatal Pathway". Experimental Neurology. 175 (2): 303–17. doi:10.1006/exnr.2002.7891. PMID   12061862. S2CID   2770493.
  33. ↑ Groger, Adraine (8 January 2014). "Dopamine Reduction in the Substantia Nigra of Parkinson's Disease Patients Confirmed by In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging". PLOS ONE. 9 (1): e84081. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...984081G. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0084081 . PMC   3885536 . PMID   24416192.
  34. ↑ Spehlmann, Rainer; Stahl, StephenM. (1976-04-03). "DOPAMINE ACETYLCHOLINE IMBALANCE IN PARKINSON'S DISEASE: Possible Regenerative Overgrowth of Cholinergic Axon Terminals". The Lancet. Originally published as Volume 1, Issue 7962. 307 (7962): 724–726. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(76)93095-6. ISSN   0140-6736. PMID   56538. S2CID   26024410.
  35. ↑ Niethammer, Martin (May 2012). "Functional Neuroimaging in Parkinson's Disease". Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine. 2 (5): a009274. doi:10.1101/cshperspect.a009274. PMC   3331691 . PMID   22553499.
  36. ↑ Fusar-Poli, Paolo; Meyer-Lindenberg, Andreas (1 January 2013). "Striatal presynaptic dopamine in schizophrenia, part II: meta-analysis of [(18)F/(11)C]-DOPA PET studies". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 39 (1): 33–42. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbr180. ISSN   1745-1701. PMC   3523905 . PMID   22282454.
  37. ↑ Weinstein, Jodi J.; Chohan, Muhammad O.; Slifstein, Mark; Kegeles, Lawrence S.; Moore, Holly; Abi-Dargham, Anissa (1 January 2017). "Pathway-Specific Dopamine Abnormalities in Schizophrenia". Biological Psychiatry. 81 (1): 31–42. doi:10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.03.2104. ISSN   1873-2402. PMC   5177794 . PMID   27206569.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.