Numidian | |
---|---|
Old Libyan | |
Native to | ancient Numidia |
Region | Mainly modern day Algeria, parts of Tunisia and parts of west Libya (as result of Numidian expansion but with Libyan Berber languages) |
Ethnicity | Numidians |
Extinct | Developed into, or replaced with various modern Berber languages in the 3rd-4th century AD |
Afro-Asiatic
| |
Early form | |
Dialects |
|
Libyco-Berber alphabet (Proto-Tifinagh) | |
Language codes | |
ISO 639-3 | nxm |
nxm | |
Glottolog | numi1241 |
Numidian[ needs IPA ] was a language spoken in ancient Numidia. The script in which it was written, the Libyco-Berber alphabet (from which Tifinagh descended), has been almost fully deciphered and most characters (apart from a few exceptions restricted to specific areas) have known values. Despite this, the language has barely been deciphered and only a few words are known. Libyco-Berber inscriptions are attested from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD. The language is scarcely attested and can be confidently identified only as belonging to the Afroasiatic family, although it was most likely part of the Berber languages, spoken at the start of the breakup of the Proto-Berber language. [1] [2] [3]
It is known that there was an orthographical difference between the western and eastern Numidian language. Starting at Kabylia, which was a kind of mixed region, the regions to the east all the way to what is east of modern day Tunisia and western parts of Libya used the east Libyan writing system, while the regions to the west all the way to approximately the Moulouya river spoke the western Numidian dialect and used the larger and still undecoded west Libyan writing system. [4] The East-Numidian dialect was much more influenced by the Punic language than the West-Numidian, and West-Numidian is thought to be more ancient than East-Numidian. [5] Numidian was influenced mostly by Punic and then Roman, although Numidian and even some modern Berber vocabulary seem to have been also slightly influenced by the Paleohispanic languages and possibly by other Pre-Indo-European languages. [6] [7]
Not much is known about the variations of the old Libyc language(s) as none of them have been fully deciphered, and outside of some east-Numidian steles none of the various Old Libyc writings have been interpreted. It may be possible that the language of the neighbouring Mauri people of modern-day Morocco may have been a dialect of the larger Numidian, although there are little to no sources or researches into the language. [8] If Numidian was a Berber language then it is known that by that stage the breakup of Proto-Berber into various Berber languages was still not fully complete, and thus the ancient Berber languages of the time were very similar to each other, even more so than the modern ones. [9] In circa 500 B.C various nomadic Berber groups penetrated the Sahara from the north, corresponding the area of the later Gaetulians. [10] Although the area where these nomads lived yielded no writing and thus is incomparable to Numidian, it is known that Pliny the Elder described the Saharan Gaetulian language as very similar or the same as the Numidian one, implying that the Gaetulian language may have been a dialect of Numidian. [11]
Not much is known of the Numidian language, and even less of Berber or Proto-Berber languages and dialects at this time, although it is known that for example the language of the native Berbers of Cyrenaica contained many Greek loanwords according to Herodotus. [12] It is also unknown whether the Mauretanian language of the neighbouring Kingdom of Mauretania in what is approximately modern day Morocco formed a part of the Numidian language, or was a separate language from it, as there has been as of yet no major efforts into decoding it, and there are no known sources describing it. [8]
As the Massylii, who spoke the language, were ethnically Berber, [13] [14] it is supposed that Numidian was therefore a Berber language. [15] The Berber branch of Afro-Asiatic is sometimes called Libyco-Berber since it is not certain whether Numidian would fall within the modern Berber languages or form a sister branch to them. Some theorize that it constituted a group of its own, as there is no trace of the noun-case system shared by the modern Berber languages. [16] However, Proto-Berber is theorized to have no grammatical case either, which would also imply a later addition of the system. The Lybico-Berber tifinagh and the Phoenician alphabet being abjads without vowels complicates the matter even more. [17]
Work on deciphering the language has not been decisive, although especially recently some tried to reconstruct words by comparing Numidian script to proto and modern Berber languages. Most remaining scripts are funerary, and follow the formula of "X w-Y" (X son of Y). BNS is also an often returning words in this script, which probably meant "tomb of". Many words had an H at the end of them, the function of which is unclear. A few gravestones show a different word between the two personal names, plausibly interpreted as a kinship term based on Berber comparisons: wlt "daughter (of)" (modern Berber wəlt), and, more rarely, mt "mother (of)" (modern Tuareg ma). Similar to the modern berber languages, the ta-...-t circumfix signified feminine version of the word with a silent h added to the end. [18] In the Dougga inscriptions some political positions are mentioned, such as "gld" (lord) which based on this technique, can be translated into the modern berber word "agellid" [19] which originates from the proto-berber word "*a-gəllid". A few verbs have been unambiguously identified in the various inscriptions. Comparison with modern Berber suggests that ṣkn, probably read as "eṣ(ə)k-n based on modern berber comparison which means"built" is to be analysed as ṣk "build" plus -n, marking 3pl subject agreement (-ən). [20] [21]
An example of translation using this method can be demonstrated on a part of a Numidian inscription which is read as "Msnsn. gldt. w-gjj." [22] "Msnsn" is the name of king Massinissa while "gldt" is the word for king. Finally, "w-gjj" means "son of Gaia". Thus by attempting to translate the Numidian text through modern and proto-Berber the inscription would read "Massinissa the king, son of Gaia". [23] [21]
Numidian also featured and shared most or all of its prepositions "n" (of) and "d" (and) with modern Berber, along with various prefixes, such as "ta...-t", "m-" etc. with modern Berber. [24]
These facts would strongly suggest that Numidian is a now extinct branch of the Berber languages, although some linguists believe that Numidian is not an ancestor but an extinct sister branch to the modern surviving Berber languages. [16]
If the translations of "SBS" (asebbas) in the Thugga inscription as "year" is correct then that would mean the Proto-Berber form "ww" which evolved into "gg" or "gʷ" in most modern Berber languages was "bb" or "bʷ" in Numidian. This is only found in the Zenaga language of Mauritania in modern times. As Zenaga was one of the first Berber languages to split off from the Proto-Berber group and thus still possesses many ancient characteristics, along with the Numidian usage of this form, could suggest that in the evolution of Berber languages "ww" turned into "bʷ" and then into "gʷ".
Numidian names generally often followed a complicated, but well documented naming convention of Berber antiquity and medieval times. While this wasn't always the case, this was especially true for nobles or higher leaders. The way it worked was simple: Verb in the 3rd person + personal pronouns as an affix (direct or indirect) in 3rd person plural form (he/she-X-they/of them). [25]
For example, the actual name of Jughurta most likely sounded as "y-uger-ten" (he who surpasses them), while the name of king Massinissa (MSNSN in Libyco-Berber) [26] was "mas-nsen" (their seignor). Much of the onomastic work on the Numidian language was done by Salem Chaker, who through his work also help in decoding a few words in the language through dissecting known names. [27]
Here is a comparison of the few known Numidian words to modern Northern Berber languages and the Tamashek language. Normalized words with vowels added are written in the brackets. Underlined words are based on etymologic or onomastic reconstructions from Numidian names.
Numidian | Northern Berber languages | Tamasheq language | English |
---|---|---|---|
Political positions and jobs | |||
GLD (a-gəllid) | agellid or a-žellid | æ-mænókɑl | chief or king |
TGLT(H) (Ta-gəllit) | Tagellidt or Tagellit | Timnokalt | queen |
MNKD(H) (amenkad) | amenkad | amenkaḍ | emperor |
MSWH (amsiweɣ?) | aserdas | əssærdɑ́si | Possibly soldier or guard based on linguistic reconstruction |
GLDMṢK (a-gellid ameṣka) | agellid imeska | æ-mænókɑl ælbǽnnɑ | Unknown, corresponds with Punic "chief of fifty", may be reconstructed as "chief of the builders/masons" |
NBBN (inababen?) | imahalen, yixeddamen | i-mə̀s-ɡuyyɑ | workers |
MWSN(H) (amawsan) | amussnaw | amûssen | sage or wise man |
GẒB (agẓab) | Unknown, possibly "inspector of construction" | ||
MṢṢKW (amṣeṣkaw) | amasgad, ameṣkad | possibly architect | |
MS (mass) | mass | mass | honorary title for men. May be translated as "sir" or "seignor", |
MSTN (amastan) | amastan | amastan | defender/protector |
Verbs | |||
RN (rna or erna) | ernu, erna, or erni | ernu | achieve victory, inflict defeat upon someone |
ṢK (eṣk) | eṣk or bnu | kɑ́nn or dæ̀y | build |
YS (yusa) | yusa or as-d | ə̀qqæl | come or came |
DR (idir) | idir | to live | |
BDD (bded) | bded | to stand | |
FL (afel?) | zger | to cross | |
Materials | |||
ZLH (uzzal) | uzzal | tă-zoli | iron [6] |
Š?RH (a-šɣarh?) | a-sɣar | e-săɣer | wood |
Affixes and prepositions | |||
NS (-ennes) | -nnes, -is or -es | -ənnes | its |
N (n) | n | n | of (pertaining to something) |
D (d) | d | d | and |
-TN (-ten) | -ten | -san | them |
-NSN (-nsen) | -nsen | -nesən | their |
y- | y- | y- | he (third person masculine singular verb subject affix) |
t- | t- | t- | she (third person feminine singular verb subject affix) |
WR (war) | ur | war | not |
Kinship terms | |||
W (u- or w-) | u- | ăw- | son of |
WLT (wəlt-) | wəlt | wəlt | daughter of |
MT (mat?) | yimma, yemma | ma | mother of |
Others | |||
SBS (asəbbas) | assewas, assegwas or asseggas | Awetai, Iwitian | Possibly year, although Numidian translation is unsure |
ẒK (aẓekka) | aẓekka | ì-z̩əkw-ɑn | tomb |
ugər or agər | uger or agar | ager | to surpass |
yif or if | if or af | uf | to be superior |
MSKR or MSKRH (ameskar or miskiri) | Unsure, either cognate to Kabyle and Tuareg word ameskar, [Note 1] or denoting the Misciri tribe |
This comparison suggests that Numidian may be closest to the modern Northern Berber languages such as the Zenati languages, Shilha language, and the Kabyle language although the modern northern Berber languages have gone through grammatical changes, and they have also taken loanwords from Arabic, Latin, and French. Kabyle may be the closest to Numidian, but has absorbed loanwords and phrases from the other languages mentioned. [28]
According to many linguists the H at the end of many numidian words were either silent or disappeared by modern times, [29] or that in many cases such as MSWH or MWSNH was possibly used as a replacement for, or possibly was the ancestor of the modern berber ɣ sound. [24]
The Thugga inscription is the longest known Numidian inscription as of yet, and has served with the most clues regarding the language.
Numidian script
ṢKN•TBGG•BNYFŠ•MSNSN•GLDṮ•WGYY•GLDṮ•WZLLSN•ŠFṬ
SBSNDH•GLDṮ•SYSH•GLD•MKWSN
ŠFṬ•GLDṮ•WFŠN•MWSNG•ŠNK•WBNY•WŠNK•DŠFṬ•WM
WTNKW•MṢṢKW•MGN•WYRŠTB•WSDYLN•GẒB•MGN•WŠFṬ•MW
WŠMN•GLDṮ•GLDGMYL•ZMR•WMSNF•WŠMN•GLDMṢK•M
WŠYN•GLDṮ•WMGN•GLDṮ•ṬNYN•ŠYN•WNKKN•WFṬŠ•DR
ŠFṬ•WŠNK•
Normalization and adding of known or possible vowels
əṣk(ə)-n Tubgag BNYFŠ[?] Masnsen a-gəllidṯ u-Gayya a-gəllidṯ u-Zelalsen šufeṭ
Asəbbas NDH a-gəllidṯ(?) s-yusa a-gəllid Mikiwsan [29]
Translation from Punic
The people of Thugga built this temple for Masinissa the King son of Gaia the King son of Zilalsan the Judge, in the tenth year since Micipsa ruled, in the year of Shufet the King son of Afshan the King, The Centurion: Shanok son of Banay and Shufet son of Magon son of Tanaku. The ms s kwy Magon son of Yirashtan son of Sadyalan, and gzby: Magon son of Shufet the Centurion son of Abdeshmun the King. Erectors of this property: Ashyan son of Ankikan son of Patash and Arash son of Shufet son of Shanok.
These texts are examples of bilingual inscriptions with known meanings, most of which are funerary texts
Punic
[mn]ṣbt š'ṭbn bn ypmṭt bn plw
hbnm š'bnm ʕb'rš bn ʕbdštrt
zmr bn 'ṭbn bn ypmṭt bn plw
mngy bn wrsbn
wb'zrt šl' **t* zzy wṭmn wwrskn
hḥršm šyr msdl bn nnpsn w'nkn b[n] 'šy
hnskm šbrzl špṭ bll wppy bn bby
Punic to English translation
The monument of 'ṭbn son of Ypmṭt son of Plw.
Builders of the stones: ʕb'rš son of ʕbdštrt;
Zmr son of 'ṭbn son of Ypmṭt son of Plw;
Mngy son of Wrsbn.
And for its ???, Zzy son of Ṭmn and Wrskn.
Workers of the wood: Msdl son of Nnpsn and 'nkn son of 'šy.
Casters of the iron: Šfṭ son of Bll and Ppy son of Bby.
Numidian
****N WYFMṬT W*******DRŠ WWDŠTR
*****BN WYFMṬṮ WFLW
MNGY WWRSKN
KSLNS ŻŻY WṬMN WRSKN
NBBN NŠ[Q]RH MSDL WNNFSN NKN WŠY
NB*N NZLH ŠFṬ WBLL FFY WBBY
Normalization and adding of known or possible vowels
Aṭeban w-Yefmaṭat w-Falu****D'rš w-Wadaštar
Zamir w-Aṭeban w-Yefmaṭat w-Falu
Mangy w-Wareskan
KSLNS Żaży w-Ṭaman w-Raskn
inababen n a-šɣarh Masdil w-Nanafsen Naken w-šy
inababen (?) n uzzal Šufeṭ w-Balil Fafy W-Beby [30]
Latin
SACTUT•IHIMIR F•VIXIT•ANORVM•LXX H[SE]
Latin to English
Sactut son of Ihimir lived 70 years. [He is buried here.]
Numidian
ZKTT WYMR MTYBLH MSWH MNKDH
Normalization and adding of known or possible vowels
Zaktut w-Iymir MTYBLH amsiweɣ amenkad
Possible Numidian to English translation
Zaktut son of Iyimir MTYLBH soldier of the emperor. [24]
^ Meaning either "the good one" or the "resting one".
Tifinagh is a script used to write the Berber languages. Tifinagh is descended from the ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet. The traditional Tifinagh, sometimes called Tuareg Tifinagh, is still favored by the Tuareg Berbers of the Sahara desert in southern Algeria, northeastern Mali, northern Niger and northern Burkina Faso for writing the Tuareg Berber language. Neo-Tifinagh is an alphabet developed by Berber Academy to adopt Tuareg Tifinagh for use with Kabyle; it has been since modified for use across North Africa.
Numidia was the ancient kingdom of the Numidians in northwest Africa, initially comprising the territory that now makes up Algeria, but later expanding across what is today known as Tunisia and Libya. The polity was originally divided between the Massylii in the east and the Masaesyli in the west. During the Second Punic War, Masinissa, king of the Massylii, defeated Syphax of the Masaesyli to unify Numidia into the first Berber state in present-day Algeria. The kingdom began as a sovereign state and later alternated between being a Roman province and a Roman client state.
The Tuareg languages constitute a group of closely related Berber languages and dialects. They are spoken by the Tuareg Berbers in large parts of Mali, Niger, Algeria, Libya and Burkina Faso, with a few speakers, the Kinnin, in Chad.
Phoenician is an extinct Canaanite Semitic language originally spoken in the region surrounding the cities of Tyre and Sidon. Extensive Tyro-Sidonian trade and commercial dominance led to Phoenician becoming a lingua franca of the maritime Mediterranean during the Iron Age. The Phoenician alphabet spread to Greece during this period, where it became the source of all modern European scripts.
The Punic language, also called Phoenicio-Punic or Carthaginian, is an extinct variety of the Phoenician language, a Canaanite language of the Northwest Semitic branch of the Semitic languages. An offshoot of the Phoenician language of coastal West Asia, it was principally spoken on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa, the Iberian peninsula and several Mediterranean islands such as Malta, Sicily and Sardinia by the Punic people, or western Phoenicians, throughout classical antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 6th century AD.
Kabyle or Kabylian is a Berber language spoken by the Kabyle people in the north and northeast of Algeria. It is spoken primarily in Kabylia, east of the capital Algiers and in Algiers itself, but also by various groups near Blida, such as the Beni Salah and Beni Bou Yaqob.(extinct?)
The Zenati languages are a branch of the Northern Berber language family of North Africa. They were named after the medieval Zenata Berber tribal confederation. They were first proposed in the works of French linguist Edmond Destaing (1915) (1920–23). Zenata dialects are distributed across the central Berber world (Maghreb), from northeastern Morocco to just west of Algiers, and the northern Sahara, from southwestern Algeria around Bechar to Zuwara in Libya. The most widely spoken Zenati languages are Tmazight of the Rif in northern Morocco and Tashawit Berber in northeastern Algeria, each of which have over 3 million speakers.
Gaetuli was the Romanised name of an ancient Berber tribe inhabiting Getulia. The latter district covered the large desert region south of the Atlas Mountains, bordering the Sahara. Other documents place Gaetulia in pre-Roman times along the Mediterranean coasts of what is now Algeria and Tunisia, and north of the Atlas. During the Roman period, according to Pliny the Elder, the Autololes Gaetuli established themselves south of the province of Mauretania Tingitana, in modern-day Morocco. The name of the Godala people is hypothesized to be derived from the word Gaetuli.
Roger Marsh Blench is a British linguist, ethnomusicologist and development anthropologist. He has an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is based in Cambridge, England. He researches, publishes, and works as a consultant.
Dougga or Thugga or TBGG was a Berber, Punic and Roman settlement near present-day Téboursouk in northern Tunisia. The current archaeological site covers 65 hectares. UNESCO qualified Dougga as a World Heritage Site in 1997, believing that it represents "the best-preserved Roman small town in North Africa". The site, which lies in the middle of the countryside, has been protected from the encroachment of modern urbanization, in contrast, for example, to Carthage, which has been pillaged and rebuilt on numerous occasions. Dougga's size, its well-preserved monuments and its rich Numidian-Berber, Punic, ancient Roman, and Byzantine history make it exceptional. Amongst the most famous monuments at the site are a Libyco-Punic Mausoleum, the Capitol, the Roman theatre, and the temples of Saturn and of Juno Caelestis.
During the Iron Age and classical antiquity, Libya referred to modern-day Africa west of the Nile river. Greek and Roman geographers placed the dividing line between Libya/Africa and Asia at the Nile.
The Berber Latin alphabet is the version of the Latin alphabet used to write the Berber languages. It was adopted in the 19th century, using varieties of letters.
The Massylii or Maesulians were a Berber federation in eastern Numidia, which was formed by an amalgamation of smaller tribes during the 4th century BC. They were ruled by a king. On their loosely defined western frontier were the powerful Masaesyli. To their east lay the territory of the rich and powerful Carthaginian Republic. Their relationship to Carthage resembled that of a protectorate. Carthage maintained its dominance over the Massylii by skillful diplomatic manoeuvering, playing off local tribal and kingdom rivalries. The principal towns of the Massylii were Cirta, Tébessa and Thugga in modern-day Algeria and Tunisia.
Proto-Berber or Proto-Libyan is the reconstructed proto-language from which the modern Berber languages descend. Proto-Berber was an Afroasiatic language, and thus its descendant Berber languages are cousins to the Egyptian language, Cushitic languages, Semitic languages, Chadic languages, and the Omotic languages.
Berber orthography is the writing system(s) used to transcribe the Berber languages.
The Punic-Libyan bilingual inscriptions are two important ancient bilingual inscriptions dated to the 2nd century BC.
The Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga is an ancient mausoleum located in Dougga, Tunisia. It is one of three examples of the royal architecture of Numidia, which is in a good state of preservation and dates to the second century BC. It was restored by the government of French Tunisia between 1908 and 1910.
Mastanabal was one of three legitimate sons of Masinissa, the King of Numidia, a Berber kingdom in, present day Algeria, North Africa. The three brothers were appointed by Scipio Aemilianus Africanus to rule Numidia after Masinissa's death.
Masinissa, also spelled Massinissa, Massena and Massan, was an ancient Numidian king best known for leading a federation of Massylii Berber tribes during the Second Punic War, ultimately uniting them into a kingdom that became a major regional power in North Africa. Much of what is known about Masinissa comes from the Livy's History of Rome, and to a lesser extent Cicero's Scipio's Dream. As the son of a Numidian chieftain allied to Carthage, he fought against the Romans in the Second Punic War, but later switched sides upon concluding that Rome would prevail. With the support of his erstwhile enemy, he united the eastern and western Numidian tribes and founded the Kingdom of Numidia. As a Roman ally, Masinissa took part in the decisive Battle of Zama in 202 BC that effectively ended the war in Carthage's defeat; he also allowed his wife Sophonisba, a famed Carthaginian noblewoman who had influenced Numidian affairs to Carthage's benefit, to poison herself in lieu of being paraded in a triumph in Rome.
The Libyco-Berber alphabet or the Libyc alphabet is an abjad writing system that was used during the first millennium BC by various Berber peoples of North Africa and the Canary Islands, to write ancient varieties of the Berber language like the Numidian language in ancient North Africa.