The Mount Gay Rum distillery in Barbados (visitors centre pictured) claims to be the world's oldest active rum company.
The origin of the word "rum" is unclear. The most widely accepted hypothesis is that it is related to "rumbullion", a beverage made from boiling sugar cane stalks,[3] or possibly "rumbustion", which was a slang word for "uproar" or "tumult";[4][5] a noisy uncontrollable exuberance,[3] though the origin of those words and the nature of the relationship are unclear.[6][7][4] Both words surfaced in English about the same time as rum did (1651 for "rumbullion", and before 1654 "rum").[6]
There have been various other theories:
That it arose from the obsolete British slang adjective "rum", meaning "high quality"; "rum booze" is attested from 1725.[8] Given the harshness of early rum, this is unlikely.[4]
That it came from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as rummers, from the Dutch word roemer, a drinking glass.[9]
That it is related to ramboozle and rumfustian, popular British drinks of the mid-17th century. However, neither was made with rum, but rather eggs, ale, wine, sugar, and various spices.
That it was short for iterum, Latin for "again; a second time."[2]
Regardless of the original source, the name was already in common use by 1654, when the General Court of Connecticut ordered the confiscations of "whatsoever Barbados liquors, commonly called rum, kill the devil and the like".[10] A short time later in May 1657, the General Court of Massachusetts also decided to make illegal the sale of strong liquor "whether knowne by the name of rumme, strong water, wine, brandy, etc".[2]
In current usage, the name used for a rum is often based on its place of origin.
Rhum is a French term for a rum made from fresh sugar cane juice rather than molasses, in French-speaking locales such as Martinique.[11] A rhum vieux ("old rum") is an aged French rum that meets several other requirements.
Some of the many other names for rum are Nelson's blood, kill-devil, demon water, pirate's drink, navy neater, and Barbados water.[12] A version of rum from Newfoundland is referred to by the name screech, while some low-grade West Indies rums are called tafia.[13]
Marco Polo recorded a 14th-century account of a "very good wine of sugar(cane)" that was offered to him in the area that became modern-day Iran.[3]
A liquid identified as rum has been found in a tin bottle found on the Swedish warship Vasa, which sank in 1628.[19]
A sugar-making house under the plantation owner Richard Ligon containing a furnace, a cooling basin, and a filling room has been recorded on the island of Barbados since 1673.[20]
Maria Dembinska states that King Peter I of Cyprus, also called Pierre I de Lusignan (9 October 1328 – 17 January 1369), brought rum with him as a gift for the other royal dignitaries at the Congress of Kraków, held in 1364.[21] This is plausible given the position of Cyprus as a significant producer of sugar in the Middle Ages,[22] although the alcoholic sugar drink named rum by Dembinska may not have resembled modern distilled rums very closely. Dembinska also suggests Cyprus rum was often drunk mixed with an almond milk drink, also produced in Cyprus, called soumada.[21]
Rum production has been recorded in Brazil in the 1520s.[23]
Shidhu, a drink produced by fermentation of sugarcane juice, is mentioned in Sanskrit texts.[24]
Many historians now believe that rum-making found its way to the Caribbean islands along with sugarcane and its cultivation methods from Brazil.[25] The traditional history of modern-style rum tells of its invention in the Caribbean, in the 17th century, by slaves on sugarcane plantations, who discovered that molasses, a by-product of the sugar refining process, could be fermented to produce alcohol, and then distilled. The earliest record, in a 1651 document from Barbados, mentions the island of Nevis in particular:[26]
The chief fuddling they make in the island is Rumbullion, alias Kill-Divil, and this is made of sugar canes distilled, a hot, hellish, and terrible liquor.
By the late 17th century rum had replaced French brandy as the exchange alcohol of choice in the triangle trade. Canoemen and guards on the African side of the trade, who had previously been paid in brandy, were now paid in rum.[25]
After the development of rum in the Caribbean, the drink's popularity spread to Colonial North America. To support the demand for the drink, the first rum distillery in the Thirteen Colonies was set up in 1664 on Staten Island, NY. Boston, Massachusetts, had a distillery three years later.[27] The manufacture of rum became early colonial New England's largest and most prosperous industry.[28]New England became a distilling center also due to the technical, metalworking and cooperage skills and abundant lumber; the rum produced there was lighter: more like whiskey. Much of the rum was exported, and distillers in Newport of Rhode Island even made an extra strong rum specifically to be used as a slave currency.[25]Rhode Island rum even joined gold as an accepted currency in Europe for a period of time.[29] While New England triumphed in price and consistency, Europeans still viewed the best rums as coming from the Caribbean.[25] Estimates of rum consumption in the American colonies before the American Revolutionary War had every man, woman, or child drinking an average of 3 imperial gallons (14L) of rum each year.[30]
In the 18th century, ever increasing demands for sugar, molasses, rum, and slaves led to a feedback loop that intensified the triangular trade.[31] When France banned the production of rum in their New World possessions to end the competition with domestically produced brandy, New England distillers became able to undercut producers in the British West Indies by buying molasses cheaply from French sugar plantations. The outcry from the British rum industry led to the Molasses Act 1733, which levied a prohibitive tax on molasses imported into the Thirteen Colonies from foreign countries or colonies. Rum at this time accounted for approximately 80% of New England's exports, and paying the duty would have put the distilleries out of business, so that compliance with and enforcement of the act were minimal.[25] Strict enforcement of the Molasses Act's successor, the Sugar Act 1764, may have been an additional factor in causing the American Revolution.[30] In the slave trade, rum was also used as a medium of exchange. For example, the slave Venture Smith, whose history was later published, had been purchased in Africa for four gallons of rum plus a piece of calico.
In "The Doctor's Secret Journal", an account of the happenings at Fort Michilimackinac in northern Michigan from 1769 to 1772 by Daniel Morison, a surgeon's mate, it was noted that there was not much for the men to do and drinking rum was very popular.[32] In fact, Ensign Robert Johnstone, one of the officers, "thought proper to turn trader by selling (the) common rum to the soldiers & all others by whom he might gain a penny in this clandestine Manner". To conceal this theft, "he was observed to have filled up several Barrels of common rum with boiling water to make up the Leakage".[32]:26 Ensign Johnstone had no trouble selling this diluted rum.
The popularity of rum continued after the American Revolution; George Washington insisted on a barrel of Barbados rum at his 1789 inauguration.[33]
Rum started to play an important role in the political system, and candidates attempted to influence the outcome of an election through their generosity with rum. The people would attend the hustings to see which candidate appeared more generous. The candidate was expected to drink with the people to show he was independent and truly a republican.[34][35]
Eventually, the restrictions on sugar imports from the British West Indies, combined with the development of American whiskeys, led to a decline in the drink's popularity in North America.
Wrens during World War II serving rum to a sailor from a tub inscribed "The King God Bless Him" - Robert Sargent AustinRum grog
The association of rum with the Royal Navy began in 1655 when a Royal Navy fleet captured the island of Jamaica. With the availability of domestically produced rum, the British changed the daily ration of liquor given to seamen from French brandy to rum.[36]
Rum's association with piracy began with English privateers' trading in the valuable commodity. During the Golden Age of Piracy, these English privateers and pirates in the Caribbean typically preferred to plunder the shores and ships of the Spanish Empire. However, in contrast to the bounty of rum in the English colonies, Spain forbade the production of rum across its colonial sugarcane plantations, as a protectionist measure for its own industries. As such, pirates actually were most likely to steal Spanish wine and brandy, and drink rum upon returning to Jamaica or Barbados.[37][38] Despite this, the association between the rum and piracy was strengthened in popular culture by literary works such as Robert Louis Stevenson's Treasure Island,[39] and Blackbeard's famous appetite for rum.[37][38]
Naval rum was originally a blend mixed from rums produced in the West Indies. It was initially supplied at a strength of 100 degrees (UK) proof, 57% alcohol by volume (ABV), as that was the only strength that could be tested (by the gunpowder test) before the invention of the hydrometer.[40] The term "Navy strength" is used in modern Britain to specify spirits bottled at 57% ABV.[40] In 1866 the Navy fixed the issued strength at 95.5 proof (defined as "4.5 under-Proof", equal to 54.6% ABV).[41]
While the ration was originally given neat or mixed with lime juice, the practice of watering down the rum began around 1740. To help minimize the effect of the alcohol on his sailors, Admiral Edward Vernon had the rum ration watered, producing a mixture that became known as grog. Many believe the term was coined in honour of the grogram cloak Admiral Vernon wore in rough weather.[42] The Royal Navy continued to give its sailors a daily rum ration, known as a "tot", until the practice was abolished on 31 July 1970.[43]
Today, a tot (totty) of rum is still issued on special occasions, using an order to "splice the mainbrace", which may only be given by a member of the royal family or, on certain occasions, the admiralty board in the UK, with similar restrictions in other Commonwealth navies.[44] Recently, such occasions have included royal marriages or birthdays, or special anniversaries. In the days of daily rum rations, the order to "splice the mainbrace" meant double rations would be issued.
A legend involving naval rum and Horatio Nelson says that following his victory and death at the Battle of Trafalgar, Nelson's body was preserved in a cask of rum to allow transportation back to England. Upon arrival, however, the cask was opened and found to be empty of rum. The [pickled] body was removed and, upon inspection, it was discovered that the sailors had drilled a hole in the bottom of the cask and drunk all the rum, hence the term "Nelson's blood" being used to describe rum. It also serves as the basis for the term tapping the admiral being used to describe surreptitiously sucking liquor from a cask through a straw. The details of the story are disputed, as many historians claim the cask contained French brandy, while others claim that the term originated from a toast to Admiral Nelson.[45] Variations of the story, involving different notable corpses, have been in circulation for many years. The official record states merely that the body was placed in "refined spirits" and does not go into further detail.[46]
The Royal New Zealand Navy was the last naval force to give sailors a free daily tot of rum. The Royal Canadian Navy still gives a rum ration on special occasions; the rum is usually provided out of the commanding officer's fund and is 150 proof (75%). The order to "splice the mainbrace" (i.e. take rum) can be given by the monarch as commander-in-chief, as occurred on 29 June 2010, when Queen Elizabeth II gave the order to the Royal Canadian Navy as part of the celebration of their 100th anniversary.
Colonial Australia
Beenleigh Rum Distillery, on the banks of the Albert River near Brisbane, Queensland, circa 1912
Rum became an important trade good in the early period of the colony of New South Wales. The value of rum was based upon the lack of coinage among the population of the colony, and due to the drink's ability to allow its consumer to temporarily forget about the lack of creature comforts available in the new colony. The value of rum was such that convict settlers could be induced to work the lands owned by officers of the New South Wales Corps. Due to rum's popularity among the settlers, the colony gained a reputation for drunkenness, though their alcohol consumption was less than levels commonly consumed in England at the time.[47]
Australia was so far away from Britain that the penal colony, established in 1788, faced severe food shortages, compounded by poor conditions for growing crops and the shortage of livestock. Eventually, it was realized that it might be more economical to supply the settlement of Sydney from India, instead of from Britain. By 1817, two out of every three ships which left Sydney went to Java or India, and cargoes from Bengal fed and equipped the colony. Casks of Bengal Rum (which was reputed to be stronger and less sweet than Jamaican Rum) were brought back in the depths of nearly every ship from India. The cargoes were floated ashore clandestinely before the ships docked, by the Royal Marines regiment which controlled the sales. It was against the direct orders of the governors, who had ordered the searching of every docking ship. British merchants in India grew wealthy by sending ships to Sydney "laden half with rice and half with bad spirits".[48]
Rum was intimately involved in the only military takeover of an Australian government, known as the Rum Rebellion. When William Bligh became governor of the colony, he attempted to remedy the perceived problem of drunkenness by outlawing the use of rum as a medium of exchange. In response to Bligh's attempt to regulate the use of rum, in 1808 the New South Wales Corps marched with fixed bayonets to Government House and placed Bligh under arrest. The mutineers continued to control the colony until the arrival of Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1810.[49]
Asia
In India, rum was not traditionally produced, as making jaggery from sugarcane does not leave molasses as a by-product. Commercial production began when Western-style cane sugar production processes made molasses available, allowing sugarcane plantations to yield high economic returns. Production expanded rapidly to meet both domestic and export markets, though protectionist policies excluded Great Britain, and continued after the end of the colonial era. Today, most spirits produced in India labelled as whisky, vodka and gin are made with a neutral rum-derived base.[50]
Dividing rum into meaningful groupings is complicated because no single standard exists for what constitutes rum. Instead, rum is defined by the varying rules and laws of the different nations producing the spirit. The differences in definitions include issues such as spirit proof, minimum ageing, and even naming standards.
Mexico requires rum be aged a minimum of eight months; the Dominican Republic, Panama and Venezuela require two years. Naming standards also vary. Argentina defines rums as white, gold, light, and extra light. Grenada and Barbados use the terms white, overproof, and matured, while the United States defines rum, rum liqueur, and flavored rum.[53] In Australia, rum is divided into dark or red rum (underproof known as UP, overproof known as OP, and triple distilled) and white rum.
Despite these differences in standards and nomenclature, the following divisions are provided to help show the wide variety of rums produced.
Regional variations
Rhum Clément is a white rhum agricole from Martinique
Rum production is not regulated by a single global standard, leading to a wide variety of styles. Historically, it was common to group styles of rum by the language of the colonial power that influenced production methods, though as time went on, and former colonies have created their unique rum identities and experimented with new technology, this classification is outdated.[54]
French-speaking areas traditionally produce agricultural rum, which is a spirit distilled from fresh sugar cane juice, which results in a vegetal, grassy, and earthy profile.[55] Rums from Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and Mauritius are typical of this style.
Other regional specialties
Wray & Nephew White Overproof Rum 63% ABV is a "rude rum" that is emblematic of Jamaican rum
Several other categories of sugar cane spirit exist which are distinct from the primary traditions of Caribbean rum.
Brazil produces cachaça, a spirit made from fresh cane juice, similar to rhum agricole, but is often legally distinct.
Jamaica is known for its rums high in esters, referred to as "funky" or "hogo" rums,[57], and in particular, 63% ABV white overproof rum. Sometimes called "Rude Rum" or "John Crow Batty",[58] it is a cultural icon of Jamaica.[59]
Haiti produces clairins, a spirit made from fresh cane juice, similar to rhum agricole, but is often legally distinct.
Trinidad produces Puncheon rum, an overproof unaged spirit with historic ties to the island.
Geographical indication
In an effort to protect the quality and reputation of their countries' rum exports, several countries have passed, or are considering passing, geographical indication (GI) protections for the manufacturing process of their cane spirits. The following are some of the more notable examples of rum GIs, though the list is not exhaustive:
Jamaican rum was granted geographical indication protection in 2016.[60] This GI stipulates the yeasts that can be used, that the aging can only take place in Jamaica in barrels of a certain criteria, and that there can be nothing added to the rum besides water for dilution and caramel color for consistency.[61]
Martinique rhum was granted geographical indication protection in 1997.[62] This GI stipulates that rhum agricole from Martinique must be made from cane juice, on certain parts of the island during certain times of the year, fermentation batch size and duration, and in a column still of creole configuration.[63]
Attempts at geographical indication
Producers in Barbados have debated seeking GI protection for their rum. The three distilleries of Foursquare, St Nicholas Abbey and Mount Gay, which make up the majority of rum aged in Barbados, make rum in a traditional Barbadian style with no added sugar and support a Barbadian GI.[64][65] The GI is opposed by West Indies Rum Distillery (WIRD), which makes up the majority of rum produced and exported in Barbados, selling large quantities of sweetened, unaged rum to brands like Malibu, and producing Planteray rum, which is often sweetened and finished in cognac barrels in France.[64][65] Richard Seale, owner and master distiller at Foursquare, has criticized shipping goods for finishing in Europe as a colonial practice that reduces economic value retained in Barbados.[66] Seale has advocated against additives in rum and confronted brands for adding sugar to rum. WIRD, however, argues that sweetening rum is in line with tradition, doesn't diminish the rum, and can improve it.[65]
Other protections
CARICOM is a trade, production, and quality standard decided by and enforced by multiple Caribbean countries. While not a GI itself, member nations are obligated to adhere to its requirements, and it forms the foundation for some Caribbean countries' GI standards, such as Haiti's HaïRum.[67]
In 1934, Jamaican lawmakers passed a cap for the maximum ester count that a rum can have to be allowed for export. This was in response to a cheap German substitute for Jamaican rum called Rum-Verschnitt (literally: blended or "cut" rum). This drink is made of genuine dark rum (often high-ester rum from Jamaica), rectified spirit, and water, often colored with caramel coloring. The proportion of genuine rum it contains can be quite low; the legal minimum is only 5%. This caused a decline in demand, and therefore income, which threatened the Jamaican rum industry.[68]
Commercial categorization
Bacardi Superior is a typical light rumMyers's is a widely-available dark/black rumRon Zacapa XO can be considered a premium rum
There is no universal standard way of categorizing rum. However, retailers and consumers often use the following terms to organize and describe rum, despite experts noting that this sort of categorization is limiting.[69] The color of a rum does not indicate how long it has been aged, or if it has been aged at all, as an aged rum can be filtered clear, and an unaged rum can be dyed gold or even black.[70]
Light rums, also called "silver" or "white" rums, refers to a category of Spanish-style column-distilled rums that are light in color and flavor. They may be unaged, or they may be aged and then filtered to remove color. Their mild flavors make them popular for use in mixed drinks as opposed to drinking straight. Light rums are included in some of the most popular cocktails, including the Mojito and the Daiquiri. Many other styles of rum can be clear, such as Martinique rhum agricole or Jamaican white overproof, but these are not what this category typically refers to.[71]
Gold rums, also called "amber" rums, are rums that are gold in color and generally aged. They often gain their color and body from aging in wooden barrels (usually the charred, white oak barrels that are the byproduct of Bourbon whiskey), though caramel color can be used to deepen the color.[70] Counterintuitively, a longer aged gold rum is often lighter in color, as companies tend to dye very young rums aggressively, while higher quality rums remain their true pale yellow color.[72]
Dark rums, also called "black" or "blackstrap" rums, are defined by their dark brown, black, or red colors, are darker than gold rums. They usually have additions of color and/or molasses, or can be aged in heavily charred barrels, giving them much spicier flavors with strong molasses or caramel overtones, however, this term is largely unregulated,[70] and most dark rums are cheap rums heavily dyed with caramel.[72] In addition, dark rum is the type most commonly used in cooking. Most dark rums come from Caribbean islands such as Jamaica, the Bahamas, Barbados, and Guyana.[73]
Flavored rums are infused with flavors of fruits, such as banana, mango, orange, pineapple, coconut, starfruit or lime. These are generally less than 40% ABV (80 proof). They mostly serve to flavor similarly themed tropical drinks, and the flavors are added after fermentation and distillation.
Spiced rums are flavored with spices. Most are darker in color than other rums, sometimes significantly so, though they are often based on light rums, neutral in flavor from being distilled in continuous column stills.[70] Though rum has been spiced throughout history, the modern popularity of spiced rum in the United States started in the 1980s with the introduction of Captain Morgan spiced rum.[74] Some rums, such as Old Monk, have spices added, but not to the level to legally or commercially classify them as spiced rum.
Overproof rums are much stronger than the standard 40% ABV (80 proof), usually more than 50% ABV (100 proof or full proof), though legal definitions vary. Modern naval rums are a type of overproof rum that is dark and heavy bodied, reminiscent of historic naval rums and the Royal Navy'sdiscontinued tot rations.
Premium rums, also called "sipping" or "aged" rums, are sold as top-shelf liquor and often have age statements of many years, higher prices, and nicer packaging.[55] They may also be transferred to another cask during the aging process to impart additional flavors and complexity, a process known as finishing, or aged in the solera style.[70] As enforcement of age statements is not standardized, many premium rums may have misleading age statements (such as taking the age of oldest component in a blend instead of the youngest), or no age statements at all, but with a large number on the label that implies age.[75][76]
Spirit drinks can be based on rum, and can imitate rum. Though they are not rum, they are commonly found on liquor shelves alongside rum, and are often substitute goods for rum. Some common examples are Malibu, a rum-based liqueur, Stroh, an Austrian Inländer-Rum, Tuzemak, a rum-flavored beet sugar spirit, and Mamajuana, a Dominican blend of rum, wine, spices, and other ingredients.
Jamaican Ester Counts
Historically, Jamaican rum marks were categorized by their ester levels, specifically ethyl acetate, measured in grams per hectoliter of absolute alcohol, to determine their value in blending.[77] These metrics are obsolete, though many rums still advertise them as a reference to rum history.
80-150 gr/hL AA: Common Clean
150-200 gr/hL AA: Plummer
200-300 gr/hL AA: Wedderburn
700-1600 gr/hL AA: Flavoured/Continental/German (in reference to Germans using these marks for Rum-Verschnitt)
Production method
Unlike some other spirits, rum has no defined production methods. Instead, rum production is based on traditional styles that vary between locations and distillers.
Harvesting
Sugarcane is traditionally collected by sugarcane machete[78] cutters who cut the cane near to the ground, where the largest concentration of sugars is found, before lopping off the green tips. A good cutter can cut three tons of cane per day on average, but this is a small fraction of what a machine can cut. Therefore, mechanised harvesting is now utilized.
Extraction
Sugarcane comprises around 63% to 73% water, 12% to 16% soluble sugar, 2% to 3% non-sugars, and 11% to 16% fiber.[79] To extract the water and sugar juice, the harvested cane is cleaned, sliced into small lengths, and milled (pressed).
Fermentation
Sugarcane is harvested to make sugarcane juice and molasses.Artisanal Rum distillery along the N7 road
Most rum is produced from molasses, a byproduct of the process that makes sugar from sugarcane. A rum's quality is dependent on the quality and variety of the sugar cane that was used to create it. The sugar cane's quality depends on the soil type and climate it was grown in. Within the Caribbean, much of this molasses is from Brazil.[33] A notable exception is the French-speaking islands, where sugarcane juice is the preferred base ingredient.[3] In Brazil itself, the distilled alcoholic drink derived from cane juice is distinguished from rum and called cachaça.[80]
Yeast and water are added to the base ingredient to start the fermentation process.[81] While some rum producers allow wild yeasts to perform the fermentation, most use specific strains of yeast to help provide a consistent taste and predictable fermentation period.[1]Dunder, the yeast-rich foam from previous fermentations, is the traditional yeast source in Jamaica.[82] "The yeast employed will determine the final taste and aroma profile," says Jamaican master blender Joy Spence.[3] Distillers that make lighter rums, such as Bacardi, prefer to use faster-working yeasts.[3] The use of slower-working yeasts causes more esters to accumulate during fermentation, allowing for a fuller-tasting rum.[1]
The fermented product is then distilled. As with all other aspects of rum production, no standard method is used for distillation. While some producers work in batches using pot stills, most rum production is done using column still distillation.[1] Pot still output contains more congeners than the output from column stills, resulting in fuller-tasting rums.[3]
Ageing and blending
Many countries require rum to be barrel-aged for at least one year.[84] Ageing commonly uses used bourbon casks,[1] but any type of wooden cask or stainless-steel tank may be used. Rum ages colourless in stainless steel, but becomes dark in wood. Freshly distilled, especially pot-stilled, rum often has a meaty or leathery, sulfurous scent owing largely to the concentration of esters and known in centuries past as hogo, but aged rum displays this much less, although agricole and some Demerara and Jamaican rums retain a marked note of it.[85][86]
As most rum-producing areas have a hot, tropical climate, rum matures much faster than is typical in cooler climates for spirits such as whisky or brandy. An indication of this higher rate is the "angels' share", the amount lost to evaporation: about 10% per year for rum, while in France and Scotland ageing loss is typically 2%.[1]
The final stage after ageing is usually blending rum for a consistent flavour.[87] During blending, light rums may be filtered to remove any colour gained during ageing; for dark rums, caramel may be added for colour.
There have been attempts to match the molecular composition of aged rum significantly faster using heat and light for accelerated artificial ageing.[88]
In cuisine
The Mai Tai is one of the quintessential Tiki cocktailsTrinidad and Tobago-style black cake is a rum cake made with preserved fruit
Rum, particularly dark or black rum (or cheaper rum essence), is used in a number of cooked dishes as a flavoring agent in items such as rum cakes. It is commonly used to macerate fruit used in fruitcakes, in the preparation of rumtopf and Joe Frogger cookies, and in marinades for some Caribbean dishes. Rum can be used in flambé dishes, such as bananas Foster. Rum can also be used in raw or cold dishes so that the alcohol is not cooked off, such as in rum balls, hard sauces, or incorporated into ice cream, often with raisins, to create a flavor of ice cream known as rum raisin.
12Morison, Daniel (1960). Mat, George (ed.). The Doctor's Secret Journal: A True Account of Violence At Fort Michilimackinac Written in 1769 - 1772. Lansing, Michigan: The Fort Mackinac Division Press.
↑Meara, Mallory (2021). Girly drinks: a world history of women and alcohol. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Hanover Square Press. p.316. ISBN978-1-335-28240-8. OCLC1273729039.
Coulombe, Charles A. (2004). Rum: The Epic Story of the Drink that Changed Conquered the World. Citadel Press.
Foss, Richard (2012). Rum: A Global History. Reaktion Books. ISBN9781861899262.
Smith, Frederick (2005). Caribbean Rum: A Social and Economic History. University Press of Florida. (IntroductionArchived 5 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine )
Smith, Jordan B. (2025). The Invention of Rum: Creating the Quintessential Atlantic Commodity. Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN9781512828184.
Williams, Ian (2005). Rum: A Social and Sociable History of the Real Spirit of 1776. Nation Books. (extract)
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