Samadera indica

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Samadera indica
Niepa Bark Tree (Quassia indica (Gaertner) Nooteb.); branch Wellcome V0042653.jpg
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Sapindales
Family: Simaroubaceae
Genus: Samadera
Species:
S. indica
Binomial name
Samadera indica
Synonyms [1]
List
    • Locandi glandulifera(C.Presl) Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Locandi indica(Gaertn.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi lucida(Wall.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi madagascariensis(A.Juss.) Kuntze in Revis. Gen. Pl. 1: 104 (1891)
    • Locandi mekongensisPierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 263 (1892)
    • Locandi merguensisPierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Locandi pendula(Blanco) Pierre in Fl. Forest. Cochinch.: t. 262 (1892)
    • Manungala pendulaBlanco in Fl. Filip.: 306 (1837)
    • Niota commersoniiPers. in Syn. Pl. 1: 416 (1805)
    • Niota lamarkianaBlume in Bijdr. Fl. Ned. Ind.: 251 (1825), nom. superfl.
    • Niota lucidaWall. in Pl. Asiat. Rar. 2: t. 168 (1831)
    • Niota pendulaSm. in A.Rees, Cycl. 25: [s.p.] (1819), nom. superfl.
    • Niota pentapetalaPoir. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck, Encycl. 4: 490 (1798)
    • Niota tetrapetalaPoir. in J.B.A.M.de Lamarck, Encycl. 4: 490 (1798)
    • Quassia indica(Gaertn.) Noot. in Blumea 11: 517 (1963)
    • Quassia indica var. lucida(Wall.) Blatt. in Kirtikar & Basu, Ind. Med. Pl. 1: 509 (1935)
    • Quassia indica var. papuavaLauterb. in Bot. Jahrb. Syst. 56: 342 (1920)
    • Samadera brevipetalaScheff. in Natuurk. Tijdschr. Ned.-Indië 32: 410 (1871)
    • Samadera glanduliferaC.Presl in Symb. Bot. (Pragae) 2: 1 (1834)
    • Samadera indica var. brevipetala(Scheff.) Backer in Fl. Batavia: 258 (1907)
    • Samadera indica var. lucida(Wall.) Kurz in J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, Pt. 2, Nat. Hist. 44: 136 (1876)
    • Samadera lucida(Wall.) Voigt in Hort. Suburb. Calcutt.: 182 (1845)
    • Samadera madagascariensisA.Juss. in Mém. Mus. Hist. Nat. 12: 516 (1825)
    • Samadera mekongensis(Pierre) Engl. in H.G.A.Engler & K.A.E.Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam. 3(4): 210 (1896)
    • Samadera pentapetala(Poir.) G.Don in Gen. Hist. 1: 811 (1831)
    • Samadera tetrapetala(Poir.) G.Don in Gen. Hist. 1: 811 (1831)
    • Simaba indica(Gaertn.) Baill. in Hist. Pl. 4: 440 (1873)
    • Vitmannia ellipticaVahl in Symb. Bot. 3: 51 (1794)
    • Vitmannia lucida(Wall.) Steud. in Nomencl. Bot., ed. 2, 2: 779 (1841)

Samadera indica (syn. Quassia indica), the bitter wood or Niepa bark tree, is a species of plant in the family Simaroubaceae. It is a shrub or tree and grows primarily in wet tropical regions, from west Africa, through India, then down through Indonesia to Malesia.

Contents

It is used in folklore medicine in various Asian countries as well to treat various ailments such as malaria, fevers, rheumatism, bruises, skin conditions and others conditions. The leaves are used as insecticides against termites, and the wood is used for knife handles.

Description

Botanical illustration of Samadera indica. Illustrations of Indian Botany, Vol. 1 (page 344 crop).jpg
Botanical illustration of Samadera indica.

Samadera indica is an evergreen tree or shrub, [2] [3] [4] that can grow up to 10 m (32.8 ft) tall, [2] [3] [5] or 20 m (65.6 ft) tall. [6] [7]

It has pale yellow bark, [8] [9] [4] which is transversely cracked. [4] [10] There is no heartwood, and the bark has small pores, the medullary rays are very fine, uniform and closely packed. [11] It has stout branches, [8] [10] which are glabrous (hairless). [5] It is 3–10 mm (0.1–0.4 in), with elliptic-oblong, glabrous, shining leaves which are reticulately nerved. [2] They are about 20 centimeters wide. [9] The petioles are 1–2 cm long and stout. [6] [3] Leaves simple, elliptic, ovate or obovate, 5–25 cm long, 2–8.5 cm wide, rounded to acuminate at apex, rounded or obtuse at base, glabrous, glandular beneath, densely reticulate-veined; petiole 7–15(–30) mm, often curved. [5]

The flowers are usually 20 or more in umbelliform glabrous or puberulous inflorescences. The peduncles are 7–30 cm long, stout, flat, thick-above; pedicels 1 to 3 cm, jointed at base; bracts minute. Petals are 4 in number and 0.5 cm, and are white, pale yellow, or purplish. [2] The flowers bisexual, the calyx 4-lobed [6] They flower all year. [3]

The drupes appear 1-4 together, and are flat, smooth, glandular, and reticulate. [2] [3] Samadera indica has fruit of 1–4 carpels, each a woody drupe, ellipsoid with a unilateral thin wing in the upper part. They are 4–6 cm long, 2.5–3.7 cm wide, and 1.3–1.9 cm thick, with 1 large, brown seed. [5] [9] [8] Fruits are grouped in whorls of 1-4 carpels, and are green blotched red, ovoid, and flattened. [12]

The seeds have thin testa, absent endosperm, and plano-convex cotyledons, measuring up to 3.5 cm by 2.5 cm large. [4]

Taxonomy

Vernacular names

It has several English common names such as; Niepa bark tree, [3] Bitter wood, [9] and Rangoon creeper. [6] Although Rangoon Creeper name is more used for the vine Combretum indicum . [13]

Depending on the country and language, it is also known as various names such as; in Hindi as लोखंडी and Lokhandi,[ citation needed ] in Kannada as ನೀಪಾ and Nipa, samdera, [3] or Kaduhonge, [14] in Malayalam as Karinghota, [15] കര്ംഗൊടാ Karinjotta, Karingota, [3] Karingotta, [10] or Njotta. [6] In Malaysian it is Manuggal, [14] in Marathi as लोखंडी and Lokhandi, in Sanskrit as गुच्छकरंजः and Gucchakaranjah, [3] or Lokhandi. [14] In Sinhalese, known as Samadera. [14] In Spanish, known as Simaruba de Madagascar. [14] In Tamil as karincottai, நீபம் or Nibam, [14] and நீபா Nipa. [3] In Telugu as Lokanti. [14]

On the Micronesian islands (such as Caroline Island), it is known as eskeam or etkeam. [16] The wood is known as kathai in Burma. [11]

In Indonesia as gateph pait (Bangka), sahangi (Minahasa) lani (Ambon). In Malaysia as kayu pahit (Peninsular), kelapahit (Murut, Sabah), manuggal (Iban, Sarawak). In Papua New Guinea as tosi (Delena, Central Province). In the Philippines, it is known as Manunggal, [9] (Tagalog, Bikol, Bisaya). [6]

Publishing

The botanic name of Samadera indica was first published and described by German Botanist Joseph Gaertner (1732–1791) in his seminal book De Fructibus et Seminibus Plantarum vol.2 on page 352 in 1791. [1] [17]

The specific epithet "indica" refers to India, the country where this species was first observed. [18]

The species was later placed in the section Samadera of the Simaroubaceae by Hans Peter Nooteboom (1934–2022) in 1962 (published in 1963), as Quassia indica, along with Quassia harmandiana . Nooteboom had taken a very broad view of the genus Quassia L. and included therein various genera including, Hannoa Planch., Odyendyea (Pierre) Engl., Pierreodendron Engl., Samadera Gaertn., Simaba Aubl. and Simarouba Aubl.. [19] [20]

In 2007, DNA sequencing, and phylogenetic analyses was carried out on members of the Simaroubaceae family. It found that genus Samadera was a sister to Clade V and that genus Quassia was also a sister to Clade V but they had separate lineages. This suggested the splitting up of genera Quassia again, with all Nooteboom's synonyms listed above being resurrected as independent genera. [21]

It was later returned to genus Samadera as Samadera indica in 2008, [22] but it is still known as Quassia indica in many places. The woody and floating nature of the Samadera indica fruit explains how the species was able to be widespread across its distribution range. [23]

Distribution

Samadera indica is native to the countries (and regions) of Africa (within Tanzania, Pemba Island, Comoros and Madagascar), tropical Asia, (within India, [3] Bangladesh and Sri Lanka, [3] [24] ), Indo-China (within Andaman Islands, Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, [3] and Vietnam), Indonesia, [25] Malesia (within Borneo, Malaya, Philippines, [9] Sulawesi and Sumatra), Papuasia (within Bismarck Archipelago, New Guinea, Solomon Islands), and the Pacific islands (Caroline Islands and Vanuatu). [1]

It is not found on Java and the Lesser Sunda Islands. [26] It is also listed as native to the island of Singapore. [27]

Habitat

Samadera indica is found in forests at low altitudes, [9] within moist deciduous forests, [2] [28] and evergreen forests. [8] Such as India, it is mostly found in evergreen forest of Western Ghats (mountain range),[ citation needed ] It is also found in mixed dipterocarp forests. [7] [6]

It is also found along backwaters, [2] [28] or peat-based, [26] tidal, swamp forests, [12] or periodically inundated forests, [6] and along river shore. [26]

In Singapore, it is found in tidal swamp forests and on the edge of Mangrove forests. [7]

It is found at an altitude of up to 150–200 m (490–660 ft) above sea level. [6] [7] [26]

It can be growing on alluvial sites with sandy soils, but also found on limestone. [26]

Endangered

Samadera indica has been assessed for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species in 2019. Under its synonym, Quassia indica is listed as least concern (LC). [29]

It is listed as critically endangered (CR) in Singapore, [7] and it is listed in Sri Lanka as near threatened (NT). [24]

Cultivation

It can be cultivated for use in parks or gardens, due to its attractive foliage, fruits and general form. It can grow in well-drained soils or can tolerate moist soils. In positions in full sun and needs watering as much as generally any other shrub. It can be propagated by seed. [7]

Uses

Medicinal uses

Fruit (seed capsules) of Samadera indica (syn. Quassia indica) Quassia indica 30.JPG
Fruit (seed capsules) of Samadera indica (syn. Quassia indica)

Parts of the Samadera indica tree are gathered from the wild and are used medicinally in local folk medicines in several countries. [9] [25] [30]

Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial evaluation of extracts from bark and leaf of Samadera indica a medicinal plant used in traditional healing owing to its analgestic, antiinflammatory, antifeedant and antimicrobial properties. [31]

In the Congo, Africa and on Madagascar, it is used to treat malaria. [9] [32]

In Sri Lanka, a mixture of powdered bark or wood scrapings in warm water or coconut oil used to treated fever. The roasted seeds are pounded and applied to areas of rheumatism. The bruised leaves are applied over skin eruptions. The seeds are worn around the neck to help prevent asthma. [14]

In Ayurvedic health system, the drug Guchakaranja is derived from Samadera indica.[ citation needed ] It is also known as Karinjotta in Kerala, India.[ citation needed ] In the state of Kerala in India, species Samadera indica was found to have anti-tumor effects, [33] antifeedant, [34] phytotoxic, [35] antiviral, [36] anthelmintic, [37] and anti-malarial activities, [32] growth regulating activities, [38] and antioxidant,[ citation needed ] and antimicrobial activities. [39]

It was used in India to vitiate (breakdown) diseases such as vata, kapha, [8] arthritis, constipation, and also skin diseases like leprosy, scabies, pruritus, and erysipelas. [40] [41] In India, the bark is also used in the treatment of fevers. [41] The oil from the seeds is applied externally on rheumatic joints, and used as a liniment on bruises. [41] [6]

It is a medicinal plant in Myanmar. [42]

In Burma and Indonesia, the seeds are used externally to treat rheumatism. [43] [12]

In Indonesia, the bark, wood, and seeds serve as a febrifuge (substance that reduces fever) and also a tonic, and a decoction is prescribed for bilious fever. The seed, can be chewed or ground with water, is both emetic and purgative, and an oil from the seeds is a constituent in an embrocation for rheumatism. The leaves are crushed and applied to erysipelas (a skin infection). [43]

In the Philippines, the bark and wood, are macerated in water, alcohol, or wine which is then said to have tonic, stomachic, anticholeric, antifebrile, and emmenagogue properties (used to stimulate blood flow in the pelvic area and uterus). The juice from the pounded bark serves as a treatment for skin diseases, and the bark, scraped or powdered, is given in water or oil to treat "malignant fever". [43] In the Solomon Islands, water from the macerated bark is drunk as a remedy for constipation. Also the macerated leaves are mixed with coconut oil are applied to the hair to kill lice, and an infusion of the seeds is utilized as a antipyretic (substance that reduces fever). [43]

Chemical composition

All parts of the plant contain the glucoside called samaderin which is a bitter substance. [41]

The extracts were evaluated for antimicrobial effect using two strains of bacteria – Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and two species of fungi – Aspergillus niger and Candida albicans . [31] As well as bacteria species Pseudomonas aeruginosa . [44]

Quassinoids can be extracted from Samadera indica, [45] [25] from the bark, [46] and seeds. [47] Such as Samaderines A and E, which have been isolated from Samadera indica. [48] Samaderines B and C were found in 2004, isolated from the seed kernels. [49] Quassinoid - Brucin D showed activity against Walker's carcinoma. While Samaderine E exhibited anti-leukaemic activity. [48] [50] Quassinoids may have potential in drug formulations. [51]

A methanolic extract of Samadera indica can be used to treat skin diseases. [40]

Triterpenes Lupenone and 18α-Oleanan-19α-ol-3-one have been found in Samadera indica. [52]

It also contains triterpenoids, an anti-fungal compound. [53]

Essential oils have been isolated by steam distillation of flower and flower stalks of Samadera indica. [54]

Insecticide uses

It is also used to produce insecticides. [30] An infusion of the leaves, [6] [43] or a decoction of the leaves is used to kill termites (or white ants). [55] [56] Especially in the Congo and Madagascar. [32] [57]

Various extracts, including Samadera indica leaf extracts have shown to significantly decrease the reproduction ability of mosquitoes and also the hatchability of their eggs, in species such as Culex quinquefasciatus , Anopheles stephensi and Aedes aegypti . [58]

Other uses

The macerated leaves, are mixed with coconut oil, then applied to the hair for cleansing purposes. [59]

The pale yellow wood is light and soft. [60] The wood of the tree is used locally for example in the state of Sarawak in Malaysia, where it is used for making knife-handles, [29] such as parang handles. [59]

The seeds of the plant contain about 33% oil, but it is thought difficult to get a sufficient supply of the oil for commercial use. [59]

In Singapore, it is used as an ornamental plant and planted in parks and gardens. [7] It also cultivated in Myanmar. [42]

Related Research Articles

<i>Quassia</i> Genus of plants in the Simaroubaceae family found in the tropics of the world

Quassia is a plant genus in the family Simaroubaceae. Its size is disputed; some botanists treat it as consisting of only one species, Quassia amara from tropical South America, while others treat it in a wide circumscription as a pantropical genus containing up to 40 species of trees and shrubs.

<i>Azadirachta indica</i> Species of plant

Azadirachta indica, commonly known as neem, margosa, nimtree or Indian lilac, is a tree in the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of the two species in the genus Azadirachta. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and to parts of Southeast Asia, but is naturalized and grown around the world in tropical and subtropical areas. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil. Nim is a Hindustani noun derived from Sanskrit nimba (निंब).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Simaroubaceae</span> Family of plants

The Simaroubaceae are a small, mostly tropical, family in the order Sapindales. In recent decades, it has been subject to much taxonomic debate, with several small families being split off. A molecular phylogeny of the family was published in 2007, greatly clarifying relationships within the family. Together with chemical characteristics such as the occurrence of petroselinic acid in Picrasma, in contrast to other members of the family such as Ailanthus, this indicates the existence of a subgroup in the family with Picrasma, Holacantha, and Castela.

<i>Quassia amara</i> Species of tree

Quassia amara, also known as amargo, bitter-ash, bitter-wood, or hombre grande is a species in the genus Quassia, with some botanists treating it as the sole species in the genus. The genus was named by Carl Linnaeus who named it after the first botanist to describe it: the Surinamese freedman Graman Quassi. Q. amara is used as insecticide, in traditional medicine and as additive in the food industry.

<i>Monoon longifolium</i> Species of flowering plant

Monoon longifolium, the false ashoka, also commonly known by its synonym Polyalthia longifolia, is an Asian small tree species in the family Annonaceae. It is native to southern India and Sri Lanka, but has been widely introduced elsewhere in tropical Asia. This evergreen tree is known to grow over 20 m. in height and is commonly planted due to its effectiveness in alleviating noise pollution. It exhibits symmetrical pyramidal growth with willowy weeping pendulous branches and long narrow lanceolate leaves with undulate margins.

<i>Barringtonia acutangula</i> Species of plant

Barringtonia acutangula is a species of Barringtonia native to coastal wetlands in southern Asia and northern Australasia, from Afghanistan east to the Philippines, Queensland and the Northern Territory. Common names include freshwater mangrove, itchytree and mango-pine.

Hannoa is a genus of plant in the family Simaroubaceae. Found in tropical parts of Africa.

Pierreodendron is a genus of plants in the family Simaroubaceae.

<i>Vateria indica</i> Species of tree

Vateria indica, the white dammar, is a species of tree in the family Dipterocarpaceae. It is endemic to the Western Ghats mountains in India. It is threatened by habitat loss. It is a large canopy or emergent tree frequent in tropical wet evergreen forests of the low and mid-elevations.

<i>Picrasma quassioides</i> Species of tree

Picrasma quassioides is a species of Picrasma native to temperate regions of southern Asia, from the northeast of Pakistan east along the Himalaya and through East Asia from southern, central and eastern China to Taiwan, Japan and Korea.

<i>Senna auriculata</i> Species of legume

Senna auriculata is a leguminous tree in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae. It is commonly known by its local names matura tea tree, avaram or ranawara, or the English version avaram senna. It is the State flower of Indian state of Telangana. It occurs in the dry regions of India and Sri Lanka. It is common along the sea coast and the dry zone in Sri Lanka.

<i>Flacourtia indica</i> Species of fruit and plant

Flacourtia indica, is a species of flowering plant native to much of Africa and tropical and temperate parts of Asia. It has various uses, including folk medicine, fuel, animal food and human food.

<i>Simarouba amara</i> Species of tree in the family Simaroubaceae

Simarouba amara is a species of tree in the family Simaroubaceae, found in the rainforests and savannahs of South and Central America and the Caribbean. It was first described by Aubl. in French Guiana in 1775 and is one of six species of Simarouba. The tree is evergreen, but produces a new set of leaves once a year. It requires relatively high levels of light to grow and grows rapidly in these conditions, but lives for a relatively short time. In Panama, it flowers during the dry season in February and March, whereas in Costa Rica, where there is no dry season it flowers later, between March and July. As the species is dioecious, the trees are either male or female and only produce male or female flowers. The small yellow flowers are thought to be pollinated by insects, the resulting fruits are dispersed by animals including monkeys, birds and fruit-eating bats and the seeds are also dispersed by leaf cutter ants.

<i>Simarouba</i> Family of shrubs and trees

Simarouba is a genus of trees and shrubs in the family Simaroubaceae, native to the neotropics. It has been grouped in the subtribe Simaroubina along with the Simaba and Quassia genera. They have compound leaves, with between 1 and 12 pairs of alternate pinnate leaflets. Their flowers are unisexual, relatively small and arranged in large panicles. Plants are dioecious, bearing only male or female flowers. The individual flowers have between 4 and 6 sepals and petals and between 8 and 12 stamens. The fruit is a carpophore and has up to 5 drupaceous mericarps.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nimbin (chemical)</span> Chemical compound

Nimbin is a triterpenoid isolated from the neem tree. Nimbin is thought to be responsible for much of the biological activities of neem oil, and is reported to have anti-inflammatory, antipyretic, fungicidal, antihistamine and antiseptic properties. The neem tree is found in multiple Asian countries such as China, Thailand, and India. Nimbin is part of the chemical family of limonoids and triterpenoids. Nimbin was first extracted in 1942 from neem seeds by Siddiqi et al. Its molecular formula was established by mass-spectrometry along with salannin, a compound whose chemical formula and properties are very close those of nimbin. Nimbin can be extracted from different parts of the neem tree with a solvent or supercritical carbon dioxide. Nimbin is used for different purposes because it has multiple properties such as insecticide, antiviral, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and anti-fungal. Nimbin was commonly used in traditonal Indian and Chinese medicine. For example, it can be used to treat skin conditions like eczema and psoriasis.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antifeedant</span>

Antifeedants are organic compounds produced by plants to repel herbivores through distaste or toxicity. These chemical compounds are typically classified as secondary metabolites in that they are not essential for the metabolism of the plant, but instead confer longevity. Antifeedants exhibit a wide range of activities and chemical structures as biopesticides. Examples include rosin, which inhibits attack on trees, and many alkaloids, which are highly toxic to specific insect species, such as quassinoids against the diamondback moth. Samadera indica also has quassinoids used for insect antifeedant uses.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Quassinoid</span> Class of chemical compounds

Quassinoids are degraded triterpene lactones of the Simaroubaceae plant family grouped into C-18, C-19, C-20, C-22 and C-25 types. The prototypical member of the group, quassin, was first described in the 19th century from plants of the genus Quassia from which it gets its name. It was isolated in 1937, and its structure elucidated in 1961.

Samadera harmandiana is a freshwater mangrove shrub or small tree in the Simaroubaceae family. It is found in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam. The wood provides firewood. Certain fish eat the poisonous fruit

<i>Simaba</i> Genus of flowering plants

Simaba is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Simaroubaceae.

<i>Samadera</i> Genus of flowering trees

Samadera is a genus of four species of plants belonging to the family Simaroubaceae in the order Sapindales. Its range is from eastern Africa through tropical Asia to eastern Australia.

References

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