Tricholoma pardinum

Last updated
Tricholoma pardinum
Tricholoma filamentosum 01.jpg
Scientific classification Red Pencil Icon.png
Kingdom: Fungi
Division: Basidiomycota
Class: Agaricomycetes
Order: Agaricales
Family: Tricholomataceae
Genus: Tricholoma
Species:
T. pardinum
Binomial name
Tricholoma pardinum
(Pers.) Quél. (1873)
Tpardinumrge.png
T. pardinum range
Synonyms [1]

Agaricus myomyces var. pardinusPers. (1801)
Gyrophila tigrina Schaeff. ex Quel. (1886)
Tricholoma pardalotumHerink & Kotl. (1967)

Contents

Tricholoma pardinum
Information icon.svg
Gills icon.pnggills on hymenium
Convex cap icon.svg cap is convex
Free gills icon2.svg hymenium is free
Bare stipe icon.svg stipe is bare
Transparent spore print icon.svg
 spore print is white
Mycorrhizal fungus.svgecology is mycorrhizal
Mycomorphbox Poison.pngedibility: poisonous

Tricholoma pardinum, commonly known as spotted tricholoma, tiger tricholoma, tigertop, leopard knight, or dirty trich, is a gilled mushroom widely distributed across North America, Europe, and parts of Asia. It is generally found in beech woodland in summer and autumn. Two subspecies have been described from southern Europe. First officially described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801, T. pardinum has had a confusing taxonomic history that extends over two centuries. In 1762, German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer described the species Agaricus tigrinus with an illustration corresponding to what is thought to be T. pardinum, and consequently, the name Tricholoma tigrinum has been used erroneously in some European field guides.

The fruit body of Tricholoma pardinum is an imposing mushroom with a pale grey cap up to 15 cm (6 in) in diameter that is covered with dark brownish to greyish scales. The gills are whitish, and are not attached to the stout white to pale grey-brown stalk. The spore print is white. One of the more toxic members of the genus Tricholoma , the species has been implicated in a number of episodes of mushroom poisoning, probably because it is a large, attractive mushroom with a pleasant smell and taste, and it bears a superficial resemblance to several edible species, like Tricholoma terreum . Ingesting T. pardinum—even in small quantities—results in a severe, persistent gastroenteritis caused by an unknown mycotoxin.

Taxonomy

Schaffer's 1762 illustration of Agaricus tigrinus is now thought to represent Tricholoma pardinum. Agaricus tigrinus, Schaefer 1762.jpg
Schäffer's 1762 illustration of Agaricus tigrinus is now thought to represent Tricholoma pardinum.

The German naturalist Jacob Christian Schäffer published Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur Icones in 1762, [2] in which he described a mushroom he called Agaricus tigrinus. The illustration accompanying the name fits what we now know as Tricholoma pardinum; the description is less clear. [3] Elias Magnus Fries used the name Agaricus tigrinus in his 1821 work Systema Mycologicum , [4] in accordance with Bulliard's 1782 description, which now corresponds with Lentinus tigrinus . [3] Christiaan Hendrik Persoon described this species as Agaricus myomyces var. pardinus in 1801, but queried whether it was a distinct species. [5] In his 1838 work Epicrisis systematis mycologici: seu synopsis hymenomycetum, Fries assigned a different fungus again to the binomial name and linked it to Schäffer's 1762 description. [6] French mycologist Lucien Quélet reclassified it as a species in 1873, giving it its current binomial name. [7] Italian mycologist Alfredo Riva has noted that Swiss mycologist Louis Secretan provided a description forty years before Quélet, in his 1833 work Mycographie Suisse, [8] and queried why it was ignored. He has proposed the fungus be written as Tricholoma pardinum (Secr.) Quél. [3] Secretan's works are generally not recognised for nomenclatural purposes because he did not use binomial nomenclature consistently. [9] [10]

There has been confusion over which scientific name to use for over two hundred years. [3] Tricholoma tigrinum has been used in some European field guides, [11] [12] but has been applied in error to this species. [13] [14] The uncertainty was such that Czech mycologists Josef Herink and František Kotlaba suggested in 1967 that both are incorrect and proposed the new name T. pardalotum. [15]

Tricholoma pardinum lies within the subgenus Pardinicutis of Tricholoma , a grouping of similar species characterised by greyish, brownish, or pallid caps that are woolly or covered in small scales, spores with a length between eight and eleven micrometres, and abundant clamp connections in the hyphae. [13] Molecular analyses suggest that T. pardinum is closely related to T. huronense , T. mutabile , and T. venenatum . [16] [17] Tricholoma pardinum var. filamentosum is an uncommon variety, described in 1983 by Carlo Luciano Alessio, which produces mushrooms with more fibrillose caps and stalks than the typical variety. [18] It is found in southern Europe, [13] where it associates with chestnut and spruce trees. [3] Another variety has been described as T. pardinum var. unguentatum, characterised by daintier mushrooms that have a greasy coating on their caps. [3]

The specific epithet pardinum is derived from the Latin pardus "leopard", [19] [20] referring to its mottled or spotted cap. [21] The generic name derives from Greek θρίξthrix "hair" ( GEN τριχόςtrichos) and λῶμαlōma "hem", "fringe", or "border". [22] [23] Common names include striped tricholoma, [24] spotted tricholoma, [12] tiger tricholoma, [25] poison trich, [26] leopard knight, [27] and tigertop. [28] Dirty trich was a name coined by author Gary H. Lincoff in response to a publisher's request for a more accessible name than its binomial one for North American guidebooks. [29]

Description

Tricholoma pardinum 112561 cropped.jpg
The silvery-grey cap surface is covered with concentrically arranged scales that diminish as they approach the margin.
Tricholoma pardinum gills.jpg
Gills that are free from attachment to the stalk; the discolouration at the stalk base is characteristic.

The fruit body is a medium-sized mushroom, with a cap ranging from 5–15 cm (2–6 in) in diameter. [30] The cap is initially hemispherical before flattening with maturity, [11] and has a broad, shallow umbo. [31] The cap margin is initially curled inwards but uncurls as it matures. [32] The cap surface is silvery-grey and covered with concentrically patterned darker grey, brown or blackish scales that grow paler toward the cap margin, [11] Secretan noting its resemblance to the cap of Sarcodon imbricatus . [8] The gills are free (unattached to the stalk), white and thick, may have a yellow or greenish tint, and may drip water, as may the top of the stalk when broken. [11] With age, the gill edges can become jagged and rough. [32] The gill spacing is rather variable, ranging from distant to crowded; typically, between 100–120 gills extend fully from the stalk to the edge of the cap, with a variable number of lamellulae (shorter gills not extending fully from stalk to cap margin). [13]

The stout stalk may be white, pale grey or pale brown, and is thicker at the base. [11] The texture of the stalk surface ranges from fibrillose (appearing to be made of coarse fibres arranged longitudinally) to more or less smooth, and the stalk base will stain dirty brown to yellow when bruised. [13] [33] It is 3–12 cm (1–4.5 in) high and 1.5–3 cm (0.5–1 in) wide, with the base 2.5–4 cm (1–1.5 in) in diameter, [30] and bruises a dirty yellow. [13] There is no ring or volva. The flesh is whitish and has a pleasant mealy smell and taste. [11] Variety filamentosum has a mealy odour and taste reminiscent of cucumber. [3]

The spore print is white, and the oval to oblong spores are 7.5–9.5  μm long by 5.0–7.0 μm wide. [13] Spores are smooth, hyaline (translucent), nonamyloid, [33] and have a prominent hilum. The basidia (spore-bearing cells) are cylindrical to club shaped, four spored, and measure 39–50 by 8.0–9.6 μm. The cystidia present on the gill edge (cheilocystidia) are thin walled, hyaline, have a short stalk and a spherical apical portion, and measure 29–41 by 12–21 μm; cystidia are absent from the gill face. [33] The cap cuticle ranges in cellular form from a cutis (in which the hyphae are bent over, running parallel to the cap surface) to a trichoderm (with hyphae emerging roughly parallel, like hairs, perpendicular to the cap surface); the hyphae comprising the cuticle are cylindrical, and measure 2.0–9.0 μm wide with a club-shaped tip up to 11 μm wide. [13]

Similar species

Tricholoma lookalikes
Tricholoma portentosum 181316.jpg
T. portentosum
Tricholoma terreum 20061105wa.jpg
T. terreum

Tricholoma pardinum mushrooms may be confused with several edible grey-capped members of the genus Tricholoma, and some authorities recommend leaving all grey-capped Tricholoma mushrooms for experienced hunters. [11] [34] There are several superficially similar European species that could be mistaken for T. pardinum. The smaller T. terreum lacks a mealy smell and cap scales, [35] is darker and less robust, and has smaller spores measuring 5.0–7.5 by 4.0–5.0 μm. [36] The edible T. argyraceum somewhat resembles T. pardinum—but with finer scales, [11] and gills and bruised parts that yellow with age. Unlike the preferentially montane T. pardinum, these lookalikes tend to fruit at lower elevations. [37] T. atrosquamosum is smaller and darker than T. pardinum, and has a peppery aroma. [3] T. orirubens has fine dark scales and pinkish gills, [35] brittle flesh, and is generally smaller. [37] T. myomyces is smaller than T. pardinum, has a thin, fibrous partial veil on young specimens, and elliptical spores measuring 5.0–6.0 by 3.5–4.0 μm. [31] The edible and highly regarded T. portentosum is of a similar size, though has a uniform grey cap that is never scaled. [24]

In North America, Tricholoma pardinum can be confused with T. nigrum and forms of T. virgatum that have more streaked rather than spotted caps. [21] A form of T. pardinum in North America can be nearly white with pale scales, and may be confused with the whitish edible species T. resplendens . [25] Microscopically, the presence of clamp connections sets T. pardinum apart from most other members of the genus; the similar-looking (though more tan-coloured) T. venenatum also has them. [21] According to Alexander H. Smith, T. huronense is closely related, but can be distinguished from T. pardinum by its narrower gills, its tendency to form drops of reddish liquid on the gills and stalk, and an ash-grey and scaly stalk surface. [14] T. atroviolaceum and T. imbricatum are also similar. [30]

Distribution and habitat

Tricholoma pardinum is found across Europe, where it is more common in the south. [13] It is abundant in the Jura Mountains in eastern France. [24] The species is found in Belgium and Germany, but has not been recorded from the Netherlands or the British Isles. [12] [13] A historical record from Estonia has been discarded because no herbarium specimens could be found. [38] In Asia, it has been recorded from İzmir Province in southwestern Turkey, [39] China, [40] and Sado Island in Japan. [41] It is found widely across temperate North America, [33] where Santa Cruz County and Sierra Nevada in central California in the west of the continent, [42] and the central Appalachians in the east form the southern limits of its distribution. [36] T. pardinum is commonly associated with conifers in the Rocky Mountains and Pacific Northwest, and with tanoak ( Lithocarpus densiflorus ) and madrone ( Arbutus spp.) in California. The mushroom can be abundant in some years, especially warmer years with higher rainfall, [34] yet missing or rare for several years in between. [25] In Europe, it is found on chalky soil in woodland with beech and fir in summer and autumn, [11] where it prefers areas of some elevation. [24] Although it may be found in groups or fairy rings, [24] it most commonly occurs singly. [43]

Toxicity

Tricholoma pardinum is one of several poisonous members of the genus Tricholoma; its large size, fleshy appearance, and pleasant smell and taste add to the risk of its being accidentally consumed. It was responsible for more than twenty percent of cases of mushroom poisoning in Switzerland in the first half of the 20th century. [44] Many cases of poisoning arise in the Jura Mountains. [24] Eating it causes highly unpleasant gastrointestinal symptoms of nausea, dizziness, vomiting, and diarrhea. [11] These arise fifteen minutes to two hours after consumption and often persist for several hours; complete recovery usually takes four to six days. Sweating and anxiety may be evident, and disturbance in liver function has been recorded. [33] Cramping may occur in the calves. [37] In one case, seven people and a cat suffered severe symptoms after sharing a meal that contained only two mushroom caps. The toxin, the identity of which is unknown, [45] appears to cause a sudden inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the stomach and intestines. [43]

These symptoms may be severe enough to warrant hospitalisation. Treatment is supportive; antispasmodic medicines may lessen colicky abdominal cramps, and activated charcoal may be administered early on to bind residual toxin. Intravenous fluids may be required if dehydration has been extensive, especially with children and the elderly. [46] Once gastric contents are emptied, metoclopramide may be used in cases of recurrent vomiting. [47]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mushroom</span> Spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus

A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its food source. Toadstool generally denotes one poisonous to humans.

<i>Agaricus bisporus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus bisporus is an edible basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Europe and North America. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the mature state.

<i>Entoloma sinuatum</i> Species of poisonous fungus in the family Entolomataceae found across Europe and North America

Entoloma sinuatum is a poisonous mushroom found across Europe and North America. Some guidebooks refer to it by its older scientific names of Entoloma lividum or Rhodophyllus sinuatus. The largest mushroom of the genus of pink-spored fungi known as Entoloma, it is also the type species. Appearing in late summer and autumn, fruit bodies are found in deciduous woodlands on clay or chalky soils, or nearby parklands, sometimes in the form of fairy rings. Solid in shape, they resemble members of the genus Tricholoma. The ivory to light grey-brown cap is up to 20 cm (7.9 in) across with a margin that is rolled inward. The sinuate gills are pale and often yellowish, becoming pink as the spores develop. The thick whitish stem has no ring.

<i>Tricholoma argyraceum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma argyraceum is a grey-capped mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It has been often confused with the similar-looking Tricholoma scalpturatum.

<i>Agaricus campestris</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus campestris is a widely eaten gilled mushroom closely related to the cultivated button mushroom Agaricus bisporus. It is commonly known as the field mushroom or, in North America, meadow mushroom.

<i>Clitocybe nebularis</i> Species of fungus

Clitocybe nebularis or Lepista nebularis, commonly known as the clouded agaric or cloud funnel, is an abundant gilled fungus which appears both in conifer-dominated forests and broad-leaved woodland in Europe and North America. Appearing in Britain from late summer to late autumn, it is edible, but may cause gastrointestinal issues.

<i>Clitopilus prunulus</i> Species of fungus

Clitopilus prunulus, commonly known as the miller or the sweetbread mushroom, is an edible pink-spored basidiomycete mushroom found in grasslands in Europe and North America. Growing solitary to gregarious in open areas of conifer/hardwood forests; common under Bishop pine along the coast north of San Francisco; fruiting shortly after the fall rains. It has a grey to white cap and decurrent gills.

<i>Lactarius pyrogalus</i> Species of fungus

Lactarius pyrogalus, commonly known as the fire-milk lactarius, is a species of inedible mushroom in genus Lactarius. It is greyish and differentiated from other grey Lactarius by its widely spaced, yellow gills. It is found on the forest floor in mixed woodland, especially at the base of hazel trees.

<i>Inocybe geophylla</i> Species of fungus

Inocybe geophylla, commonly known as the earthy inocybe, common white inocybe or white fibercap, is a poisonous mushroom of the genus Inocybe. It is widespread and common in Europe and North America, appearing under both conifer and deciduous trees in summer and autumn. The fruiting body is a small all-white or cream mushroom with a fibrous silky umbonate cap and adnexed gills. An all-lilac variety lilacina is also common.

<i>Tricholoma terreum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma terreum, commonly known as the grey knight or dirty tricholoma, is a grey-capped mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in coniferous woodlands in Europe, and has also been encountered under introduced pine trees in Australia. It is regarded as edible. A 2014 article speculated that it may be poisonous, but Sitta et al. in 2016 published in the same journal a counter article demonstrating the unfounded nature of such speculation.

<i>Agaricus semotus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus semotus is a woodland mushroom of the fungus order Agaricales. It, like many of its relatives, can be found spread throughout wooded, moist areas in the southern United States, and has been found in areas ranging from California to Florida; it is also indigenous to Great Britain and Europe. A. semotus has also been collected in New Zealand. Although various authors disagree about its edibility, its modest size prevents it from being a significant source of nutrition.

<i>Leucopholiota decorosa</i> Species of fungus

Leucopholiota decorosa is a species of fungus in the mushroom family Tricholomataceae. Commonly known as the decorated pholiota, it is distinguished by its fruit body which is covered with pointed brown, curved scales on the cap and stem, and by its white gills. Found in the eastern United States, France, and Pakistan, it is saprobic, growing on the decaying wood of hardwood trees. L. decorosa was first described by American mycologist Charles Horton Peck as Agaricus decorosus in 1873, and the species has been transferred to several genera in its history, including Tricholoma, Tricholomopsis, Armillaria, and Floccularia. Three American mycologists considered the species unique enough to warrant its own genus, and transferred it into the new genus Leucopholiota in a 1996 publication. Lookalike species with similar colors and scaly fruit bodies include Pholiota squarrosoides, Phaeomarasmius erinaceellus, and Leucopholiota lignicola. L. decorosa is considered an edible mushroom.

<i>Tricholoma saponaceum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma saponaceum, also known as the soap-scented toadstool, soapy knight or soap tricholoma is an inedible mushroom found in woodlands in Europe and North America.

<i>Agaricus silvaticus</i> Species of fungus

Agaricus silvaticus, otherwise known as the scaly wood mushroom, blushing wood mushroom, or pinewood mushroom, is a species of mushroom often found in groups in coniferous forests from early summer, or September through to November in Europe, North Africa and North America.

<i>Tricholoma columbetta</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma columbetta, commonly known as dove-coloured tricholoma, is an edible mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in Europe, where it is eaten in France.

<i>Tricholoma portentosum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma portentosum, commonly known as the charbonnier, or sooty head in North America, is a grey-capped edible mushroom of the large genus Tricholoma. It is found in woodlands in Europe and North America.

<i>Tricholoma atrosquamosum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma atrosquamosum, commonly known as dark-scaled knight, is an edible gilled mushroom native to Europe. The grey-capped fruit bodies are generally found singly or in small groups in deciduous woodland on chalk-based soils.

<i>Tricholoma vaccinum</i> Fungus of the agaric genus Tricholoma

Tricholoma vaccinum, commonly known as the russet scaly tricholoma, the scaly knight, or the fuzztop, is a fungus of the agaric genus Tricholoma. It produces medium-sized fruit bodies (mushrooms) that have a distinctive hairy reddish-brown cap with a shaggy margin when young. The cap, which can reach a diameter of up to 6.5 cm (2.6 in) wide, breaks up into flattened scales in maturity. It has cream-buff to pinkish gills with brown spots. Its fibrous, hollow stipe is white above and reddish brown below, and measures 4 to 7.5 cm long. Although young fruit bodies have a partial veil, it does not leave a ring on the stipe.

<i>Cortinarius camphoratus</i> Species of fungus

Cortinarius camphoratus, commonly known as the goatcheese webcap, is an agaric fungus in the family Cortinariaceae. The fungus is found in Europe and North America, where its fruit bodies (mushrooms) grow on the ground in a mycorrhizal association with spruce and firs in coniferous forests. Mushrooms are characterized by pale blue lilac colors when young, and a strong distinctive odor. Sources disagree as to the edibility of the mushroom, but they are generally not recommended for eating.

<i>Tricholoma vernaticum</i> Species of fungus

Tricholoma vernaticum is an agaric fungus of the genus Tricholoma native to the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The fungus was originally described in 1976 as a species of Armillaria when that genus was more inclusive; it received its current name twenty years later. The stout fruit bodies (mushrooms) have moist white to grayish caps, a membranous ring on the stipe, and an odor resembling cucumbers. Mycorrhizal with conifers, the fungus fruits in the spring or early summer, with its mushrooms appearing on the ground singly or in groups at high elevations, often at the edge of melting snowbanks. The edibility of the mushroom is unknown, but it has a strong unpleasant odor and a mealy taste.

References

  1. ↑ "Tricholoma pardinum (Pers.) Quél. 1873". MycoBank. International Mycological Association. Archived from the original on 2008-10-05. Retrieved 2011-09-29.
  2. ↑ Schäffer, Jacob Christian (1762). Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones, nativis coloribus expressae (in Latin). Vol. 5. Erlangen, Germany: Apud J.J. Palmium. pp. 38, tab. LXXXIX. Archived from the original on 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2016-07-15.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Riva, Alfredo (1988). Fungi Europaei, Volume 3: Tricholoma (in Italian). Italy: Edizioni Candusso. pp. 197–201, 441–42. ISBN   88-901057-1-2.
  4. ↑ Fries, Elias Magnus (1821). Systema Mycologicum (in Latin). Vol. 1. Lundin, Sweden: Ex Officina Berlingiana. p. 176. Archived from the original on 2018-10-11. Retrieved 2018-01-13.
  5. ↑ Persoon, Christiaan Hendrik (1801). Synopsis Methodica Fungorum [Methodical Synopsis of the Fungi] (in Latin). Vol. 2. Göttingen, Germany: Apud H. Dieterich. p. 346. Archived from the original on 2015-05-11. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  6. ↑ Fries, Elias Magnus (1836–38). Epicrisis Systematis Mycologici: Seu Synopsis Hymenomycetum (in Latin). Uppsala, Sweden: Sumtibus Auctoris. p.  45.
  7. ↑ Quélet, Lucien (1873). "Les champignons du Jura et des Vosges. IIe Partie" [Mushrooms of the Jura and Vosges]. Mémoires de la Société d'Émulation de Montbéliard (in French). 5 (2): 339.
  8. 1 2 Secretan, Louis (1833). Mycographie Suisse (in French). Vol. II. Geneva, Switzerland: P.A. Bonnant. p. 159. Archived from the original on 2016-04-02. Retrieved 2018-01-13.
  9. ↑ Donk, Marinus Anton (1962). "On Secretan's fungus names". Taxon. 11 (5): 170–73. doi:10.2307/1216724. JSTOR   1216724.
  10. ↑ Demoulin, Vincent (1974). "Invalidity of names published in Secretan's Mycographie Suisse and some remarks on the problem of publication by reference". Taxon. 23 (5/6): 836–43. doi:10.2307/1218449. JSTOR   1218449. S2CID   88436479.
  11. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Zeitlmayr, Linus (1976). Wild Mushrooms: An Illustrated Handbook. Hertfordshire, UK: Garden City Press. pp. 72–73. ISBN   0-584-10324-7.
  12. 1 2 3 North, Pamela (1967). Poisonous Plants and Fungi in Colour. Poole, UK: Blandford Press & Pharmacological Society of Great Britain. p. 110. ISBN   978-0-7137-0446-4. OCLC   955264.
  13. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Bas, Cornelis; Noordeloos, Machiel Evert; Kuyper T. W.; et al. (1999). Flora Agaricina Neerlandica. Vol. 4. Rotterdam, Netherlands: A.A. Balkema Publishers. p. 148. ISBN   90-5410-493-7.
  14. 1 2 Smith, Alexander H. (1944). "Unusual North American agarics". American Midland Naturalist. 32 (3): 669–98. doi:10.2307/2421243. JSTOR   2421243.
  15. ↑ Herink, Josef; Kotlaba, František (1967). "Rozsireni ciruvky tygrovane v Ceskoslovensku a jeji spravne jmeno" [Occurrence of the fungus Tricholoma tigrinum in Czechoslovakia and its correct name]. Česká Mykologie (in Czech). 21 (1): 1–11.
  16. ↑ Bidartondo, M. I.; Bruns, T. D. (2002). "Fine-level mycorrhizal specificity in the Monotropoideae (Ericaceae): specificity for fungal species groups". Molecular Ecology. 11 (3): 557–59. doi:10.1046/j.0962-1083.2001.01443.x. PMID   11918790. S2CID   2006510.
  17. ↑ Lim, Sea Ra; Fischer, Alison; Berbee, Mary; Berch, Shannon M. (2003). "Is the booted tricholoma in British Columbia really Japanese matsutake?". BC Journal of Ecosystems and Management. 3 (1): 1–7. CiteSeerX   10.1.1.538.7793 .
  18. ↑ Alessio, C. L. (1983). "Tricholoma pardinum var. filamentosum new variety". Micologia Italiana. 12 (2): 15–21.
  19. ↑ Simpson, D. P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5 ed.). London, UK: Cassell. p. 423. ISBN   0-304-52257-0.
  20. ↑ pardus . Charlton T. Lewis and Charles Short. A Latin Dictionary on Perseus Project .
  21. 1 2 3 Trudell, Steve; Ammirati, Joe (2009). Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Timber Press Field Guide. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. p. 106. ISBN   978-0-88192-935-5.
  22. ↑ Nilsson, Sven; Persson, Olle (1977). Fungi of Northern Europe 2: Gill-Fungi. New York: Penguin. p. 24. ISBN   0-14-063006-6.
  23. ↑ θρίξ, λῶμα . Liddell, Henry George ; Scott, Robert ; A Greek–English Lexicon at the Perseus Project
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Lamaison, Jean-Louis; Polese, Jean-Marie (2005). The Great Encyclopedia of Mushrooms. Cologne, Germany: Könemann. p. 89. ISBN   3-8331-1239-5.
  25. 1 2 3 Arora, David (1986). Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi (2nd ed.). Berkeley, California: Ten Speed Press. p.  183. ISBN   0-89815-169-4.
  26. ↑ Lincoff, Gary H. (2008). National Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Mushrooms. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. p. 801. ISBN   978-0-394-51992-0.
  27. ↑ "Recommended English Names for Fungi in the UK" (PDF). British Mycological Society. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-16.
  28. ↑ Walderhaug, M. (1992). "Mushroom Toxins". Foodborne Pathogenic Microorganisms and Natural Toxins Handbook. USFDA/Center for Food Safety & Applied Nutrition. Archived from the original on 2009-01-17. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
  29. ↑ Bakaitis, Bill (2003). "A Morel in the Bush, Worth a Tour in the Can?". Entelechy: Mind & Culture. Archived from the original on 2008-02-03. Retrieved 2008-02-07.
  30. 1 2 3 Davis, R. Michael; Sommer, Robert; Menge, John A. (2012). Field Guide to Mushrooms of Western North America. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 165–166. ISBN   978-0-520-95360-4. OCLC   797915861.
  31. 1 2 Miller, Hope H.; Miller, Orson K. Jr. (2006). North American Mushrooms: A Field Guide to Edible and Inedible Fungi. Guilford, Connecticut: Falcon Guides. p. 126. ISBN   0-7627-3109-5.
  32. 1 2 McKnight, Vera B.; McKnight, Kent H. (1987). A Field Guide to Mushrooms: North America. Peterson Field Guides. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin. p. 188. ISBN   0-395-91090-0.
  33. 1 2 3 4 5 Ammirati, Joseph F.; Traquair, James A.; Horgen, Paul A. (1985). Poisonous Mushrooms of the Northern United States and Canada. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press. pp. 328–30. ISBN   0-8166-1407-5.
  34. 1 2 Smith, Alexander Hanchett; Weber, Nancy S. (1980). The Mushroom Hunter's Field Guide. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press. p. 157. ISBN   0-472-85610-3.
  35. 1 2 Haas, Hans (1969). The Young Specialist looks at Fungi. London: Burke. p. 144. ISBN   0-222-79409-7.
  36. 1 2 Roody, William C. (2003). Mushrooms of West Virginia and the Central Appalachians. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky. p. 263. ISBN   0-8131-2262-7.
  37. 1 2 3 Lemesle, R. (1972). "Champignons vénéneux (suite). V. Le tricholome tigré et l'entolome blanc de neige. VI. Les champignons à substances résinoïdes" [Toadstools (continued). V. The tiger-striped tricholoma and the mountain-snow entoloma. VI. The mushrooms containing resinoid substances]. Pharmaceutical Biology (in French). 12 (4): 1976–87. doi:10.3109/13880207209083243.
  38. ↑ Kalamees, Kuulo (2010). "Checklist of the species of the genus Tricholoma (Agaricales, Agaricomycetes) in Estonia" (PDF). Folia Cryptogamica Estonica. 47: 27–36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-04-01. Retrieved 2011-10-03.
  39. ↑ Solak, Mehmet Halil; Işiloǧlu, Mustafa; Güci̇n, Fahrettin; Gökler, Isa (1999). "Macrofungi of İzmir Province" (PDF). Turkish Journal of Botany. 23: 383–90. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-12-17.
  40. ↑ Deng, Hui; Yao, Yi-Jian; Pegler, David N. (2004). "An annotated checklist of Tricholoma from China". Journal of Fungal Research (in Chinese and English). 2 (1): 1–18. Archived from the original on 2014-02-22. Retrieved 2009-02-20.
  41. ↑ Miyauchi, Shinnosuke (1997). "A poisonous species, Tricholoma pardinum newly recorded in Japan". Nippon Kingakukai Kaiho. 38 (2): 85–86.
  42. ↑ Fuller, Thomas C.; McClintock, Elizabeth May (1986). Poisonous Plants of California. Berkeley, California: University of California Press. p.  54. ISBN   0-520-05569-1.
  43. 1 2 Pilát, Albert (1961). Mushrooms and Other Fungi . London, UK: Peter Nevill. p.  68.
  44. ↑ Alder, A. E. (1960). "Die Pilzvergiftung in der Schweiz während 40 Jahren" [Mushroom poisoning in Switzerland over 40 years]. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Pilzkunde (in German). 38: 65–73.
  45. ↑ Benjamin, pp. 370–71.
  46. ↑ Benjamin, pp. 354–55.
  47. ↑ Benjamin, p. 188.

Cited text

Benjamin, Denis R. (1995). Mushrooms: Poisons and Panaceas—A Handbook for Naturalists, Mycologists and Physicians. New York, New York: WH Freeman. ISBN   0-7167-2600-9.

This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.