Variolite

Last updated
Beach pebble of variolitic pillow lava (varolite) from the Olympic Peninsula, Washington state Sample of Variolite, Olympic Peninsula, Washington USA.jpg
Beach pebble of variolitic pillow lava (varolite) from the Olympic Peninsula, Washington state

Variolites are mafic, igneous, and typically volcanic rocks, e.g. tholeiite, basalt or komatiite, that contain centimeter-scale spherical or globular structures, called varioles, in a fine-grained matrix. These structures are lighter colored than the host rock and typically range in diameter from 0.05mm to over 5 cm. [1] [2] [3] In 1648, Aldrovandi created the term variolite for aphanitic or fine-grained igneous rocks containing varioles. [4] [5] The weathering of varioles often cause variolites to have a pock-marked appearance. In allusion to the pock-marked appearance of weathered surfaces of variolite, this term is derived from the Latin word, variola, for smallpox. [2] [3]

Mafic Silicate mineral or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron

Mafic is an adjective describing a silicate mineral or igneous rock that is rich in magnesium and iron, and is thus a portmanteau of magnesium and ferric. Most mafic minerals are dark in color, and common rock-forming mafic minerals include olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite. Common mafic rocks include basalt, diabase and gabbro. Mafic rocks often also contain calcium-rich varieties of plagioclase feldspar.

Rock (geology) A naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or mineraloids

A rock is any naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of minerals or mineraloid matter. It is categorized by the minerals included, its chemical composition and the way in which it is formed. Rocks are usually grouped into three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust.

Basalt A magnesium- and iron-rich extrusive igneous rock

Basalt is a mafic extrusive igneous rock formed from the rapid cooling of magnesium-rich and iron-rich lava exposed at or very near the surface of a terrestrial planet or a moon. More than 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt. Basalt lava has a low viscosity, due to its low silica content, resulting in rapid lava flows that can spread over great areas before cooling and solidification. Flood basalt describes the formation in a series of lava basalt flows.

Varioles are millimeter- to centimeter-scale, light-colored, globular to spherical structures, that are conspicuously observable within aphanitic, mafic igneous rocks, such as basalt, komatiite, and tachylite, that comprise either pillow lavas, subaerial lava flows, or volcanic dykes. Typically, they are less resistant to weathering than the enclosing aphanitic rock and, as a result, form pock-marks on the weathered surfaces of mafic rocks. [6] [7]

Tachylite A form of basaltic volcanic glass

Tachylite is a form of basaltic volcanic glass. This glass is formed naturally by the rapid cooling of molten basalt. It is a type of mafic igneous rock that is decomposable by acids and readily fusible. The color is a black or dark-brown, and it has a greasy-looking, resinous luster. It is very brittle and occurs in dikes, veins and intrusive masses. The word originates from the Ancient Greek takhus meaning swift.

Pillow lava lava containing characteristic pillow-shaped structures due to subaqueous extrusion

Pillow lavas are lavas that contain characteristic pillow-shaped structures that are attributed to the extrusion of the lava under water, or subaqueous extrusion. Pillow lavas in volcanic rock are characterized by thick sequences of discontinuous pillow-shaped masses, commonly up to one metre in diameter. They form the upper part of Layer 2 of normal oceanic crust.

Dike (geology) A sheet of rock that is formed in a fracture in a pre-existing rock body

A dike or dyke, in geological usage, is a sheet of rock that is formed in a fracture in a pre-existing rock body. Dikes can be either magmatic or sedimentary in origin. Magmatic dikes form when magma flows into a crack then solidifies as a sheet intrusion, either cutting across layers of rock or through a contiguous mass of rock. Clastic dikes are formed when sediment fills a pre-existing crack.

In the geologic literature, the usage of the term variole has been inconsistent and confusing. Initially, they were defined as spherical masses, which may or may not be spherulites, that are observed on the weathering surfaces of some basalts and diabases. In some modern literature, the term variole is defined as a type of spherulite that occurs in a mafic rock. However, because several different mechanisms can produce these small-scale, light-colored, globular to spherical structures, a specific set of varioles may or may not be spherulites that are composed of radiating crystals of either plagioclase or pyroxene. As a result, it is recommended that the term variole should be retained as originally defined. This definition is useful, not only because varioles may arise through several different mechanisms, but also because the alteration, specifically mineralization, and deformation associated with many Precambrian volcanic rocks, particularly Archean volcanic rocks, makes the determination of their origin difficult, if not impossible, without further laboratory analyses. [6] [8] Phillips (1973) [9] provides a detailed review of the nomenclature of different types of varioles that have been proposed. Confusingly, a few Earth scientists use variolite as if it is synonymous with variole. [10]

Diabase An intrusive mafic rock forming dykes or sills

Diabase or dolerite or microgabbro is a mafic, holocrystalline, subvolcanic rock equivalent to volcanic basalt or plutonic gabbro. Diabase dikes and sills are typically shallow intrusive bodies and often exhibit fine grained to aphanitic chilled margins which may contain tachylite. Diabase is the preferred name in North America, while dolerite is the preferred name in the rest of English-speaking world, where sometimes the name diabase is applied to altered dolerites and basalts. Some geologists prefer the name microgabbro to avoid this confusion.

Spherulite small, rounded bodies that commonly occur in vitreous igneous rocks

In petrology, spherulites are small, rounded bodies that commonly occur in vitreous igneous rocks. They are often visible in specimens of obsidian, pitchstone and rhyolite as globules about the size of millet seed or rice grain, with a duller luster than the surrounding glassy base of the rock, and when they are examined with a lens they prove to have a radiate fibrous structure.

Plagioclase feldspars, albite - anorthite solid solution series

Plagioclase is a series of tectosilicate (framework silicate) minerals within the feldspar group. Rather than referring to a particular mineral with a specific chemical composition, plagioclase is a continuous solid solution series, more properly known as the plagioclase feldspar series (from the Ancient Greek for "oblique fracture", in reference to its two cleavage angles). This was first shown by the German mineralogist Johann Friedrich Christian Hessel (1796–1872) in 1826. The series ranges from albite to anorthite endmembers (with respective compositions NaAlSi3O8 to CaAl2Si2O8), where sodium and calcium atoms can substitute for each other in the mineral's crystal lattice structure. Plagioclase in hand samples is often identified by its polysynthetic crystal twinning or 'record-groove' effect.

Petrographic and geochemical analyses of varioles demonstrates that they can be the result of one of three possible processes. They are the blotchy alteration of a fine-grained igneous rock; the mingling of magma from two distinctly different sources; and the alteration and degradation of plagioclase spherulites. These analyses also found that their internal organization and geochemistry is incompatible with the hypothesis that they are quenched immiscible liquids, as has been suggested in the past by various authors. [6]

Varieties and occurrence

The variety of mafic igneous rocks that contain varioles are, with rare exceptions, no longer classified as variolites, which is not recommended for usage. Instead, they are designated using the modifier variolitic in conjunction with the major lithology. The major varieties of variolites are variolitic basalts, variolitic pillow lavas and variolitic komatiites. [1] [2] Variolitic pillow lavas, that have been previously identified as variolites and also classified as spilites, are found in the Durance, France; on Mont Genvre, France; in Devonian rocks of Germany; and as cobbles on the beaches of the Strait of Juan de Fuca along the northern edge of the Olympic Peninsula. [11] [12] Variolitic basalts and variolitic komatiites occur commonly as Archean lava flows in the greenstone belts of South Africa and the Canadian Shield. [7] [8] Finally, there is a group of spotted volcanic rocks formerly known to French petrographers as the variolites du Drac from the locality in which they are found in Parc National des Ecrins, France. [13] Additional research has found them to be hydrothermally altered basalt volcanic rocks that contain amygdules filled with white calcite and other secondary minerals. [14]

Lithology science of rocks

The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in hand or core samples, or with low magnification microscopy. Physical characteristics include colour, texture, grain size, and composition. Lithology may refer to either a detailed description of these characteristics, or a summary of the gross physical character of a rock. Lithology is the basis of subdividing rock sequences into individual lithostratigraphic units for the purposes of mapping and correlation between areas. In certain applications, such as site investigations, lithology is described using a standard terminology such as in the European geotechnical standard Eurocode 7.

Spilite A fine-grained igneous rock, resulting from alteration of oceanic basalt

Spilite is a fine-grained igneous rock, resulting particularly from alteration of oceanic basalt.

France Republic in Europe with several non-European regions

France, officially the French Republic, is a country whose territory consists of metropolitan France in Western Europe and several overseas regions and territories. The metropolitan area of France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is bordered by Belgium, Luxembourg and Germany to the northeast, Switzerland and Italy to the east, and Andorra and Spain to the south. The overseas territories include French Guiana in South America and several islands in the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian oceans. The country's 18 integral regions span a combined area of 643,801 square kilometres (248,573 sq mi) and a total population of 67.02 million. France is a unitary semi-presidential republic with its capital in Paris, the country's largest city and main cultural and commercial centre. Other major urban areas include Lyon, Marseille, Toulouse, Bordeaux, Lille and Nice.

Related Research Articles

Magma Mixture of molten or semi-molten rock, volatiles and solids that is found beneath the surface of the Earth

Magma is the molten or semi-molten natural material from which all igneous rocks are formed. Magma is found beneath the surface of the Earth, and evidence of magmatism has also been discovered on other terrestrial planets and some natural satellites. Besides molten rock, magma may also contain suspended crystals and gas bubbles. Magma is produced by melting of the mantle and/or the crust at various tectonic settings, including subduction zones, continental rift zones, mid-ocean ridges and hotspots. Mantle and crustal melts migrate upwards through the crust where they are thought to be stored in magma chambers or trans-crustal crystal-rich mush zones. During their storage in the crust, magma compositions may be modified by fractional crystallization, contamination with crustal melts, magma mixing, and degassing. Following their ascent through the crust, magmas may feed a volcano or solidify underground to form an intrusion. While the study of magma has historically relied on observing magma in the form of lava flows, magma has been encountered in situ three times during geothermal drilling projects—twice in Iceland, and once in Hawaii.

The Archean Eon is one of the four geologic eons of Earth history, occurring 4,000 to 2,500 million years ago. During the Archean, the Earth's crust had cooled enough to allow the formation of continents and life started to form.

Volcanic rock Volcanic rocks composing or associated with volcanoes, volcanic activity or volcanism

Volcanic rock is a rock formed from lava erupted from a volcano. In other words, it differs from other igneous rock by being of volcanic origin. Like all rock types, the concept of volcanic rock is artificial, and in nature volcanic rocks grade into hypabyssal and metamorphic rocks and constitute an important element of some sediments and sedimentary rocks. For these reasons, in geology, volcanics and shallow hypabyssal rocks are not always treated as distinct. In the context of Precambrian shield geology, the term "volcanic" is often applied to what are strictly metavolcanic rocks. Volcanic rocks and sediment that form from magma erupted into the air are called "volcaniclastics," and these are technically sedimentary rocks.

Greenstone belts are zones of variably metamorphosed mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences with associated sedimentary rocks that occur within Archaean and Proterozoic cratons between granite and gneiss bodies.

Ultramafic rock igneous rock type

Ultramafic rocks are igneous and meta-igneous rocks with a very low silica content, generally >18% MgO, high FeO, low potassium, and are composed of usually greater than 90% mafic minerals. The Earth's mantle is composed of ultramafic rocks. Ultrabasic is a more inclusive term that includes igneous rocks with low silica content that may not be extremely enriched in Fe and Mg, such as carbonatites and ultrapotassic igneous rocks.

Komatiite An ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock

Komatiite is a type of ultramafic mantle-derived volcanic rock defined as having crystallised from a lava with ≥ 18 wt% MgO. Komatiites have low silicon, potassium and aluminium, and high to extremely high magnesium content. Komatiite was named for its type locality along the Komati River in South Africa, and frequently displays spinifex texture composed of large dendritic plates of olivine and pyroxene.

Isua Greenstone Belt Archean greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland

The Isua Greenstone Belt is an Archean greenstone belt in southwestern Greenland. The belt is aged between 3.7 and 3.8 billion years. The belt contains variably metamorphosed mafic volcanic and sedimentary rocks. The occurrence of boninitic geochemical signatures, characterized by extreme depletion in trace elements that are not fluid mobile, offers evidence that plate tectonic processes in which lithic crust is melted may have been responsible for the creation of the belt. Another theory posits that the belt formed via a process known as vertical plate tectonics.

Kaapvaal Craton Archaean craton, possibly part of the Vaalbara supercontinent

The Kaapvaal Craton, along with the Pilbara Craton of Western Australia, are the only remaining areas of pristine 3.6–2.5 Ga crust on Earth. Similarities of rock records from both these cratons, especially of the overlying late Archean sequences, suggest that they were once part of the Vaalbara supercontinent.

Volcanology of Eastern Canada

The volcanology of Eastern Canada includes the hundreds of volcanic areas and extensive lava formations in Eastern Canada. The region's different volcano and lava types originate from different tectonic settings and types of volcanic eruptions, ranging from passive lava eruptions to violent explosive eruptions. Eastern Canada has very large volumes of magmatic rock called large igneous provinces. They are represented by deep-level plumbing systems consisting of giant dike swarms, sill provinces and layered intrusions. The most capable large igneous provinces in Eastern Canada are Archean age greenstone belts containing a rare volcanic rock called komatiite.

Geology of Zimbabwe

The geology of Zimbabwe in southern Africa is centered on the Zimbabwe Craton, a core of Archean basement composed in the main of granitoids, schist and gneisses. It also incorporates greenstone belts comprising mafic, ultramafic and felsic volcanics which are associated with epiclastic sediments and iron formations. The craton is overlain in the north, northwest and east by Proterozoic and Phanerozoic sedimentary basins whilst to the northwest are the rocks of the Magondi Supergroup. Northwards is the Zambezi Belt and to the east the Mozambique Belt. South of the Zimbabwe Craton is the Kaapvaal Craton separated from it by the Limpopo Mobile Belt, a zone of deformation and metamorphism reflecting geological events from Archean to Mesoproterozoic times. The Zimbabwe Craton is intruded by an elongate ultramafic/mafic igneous complex known as the Great Dyke which runs for more than 500 km along a SSW/NNE oriented graben. It consists of peridotites, pyroxenites, norites and bands of chromitite.

Tectonic evolution of the Barberton greenstone belt

The Barberton greenstone belt (BGB) is located in the Kapvaal craton of southeastern Africa. It characterizes one of the most well-preserved and oldest pieces of continental crust today by containing rocks in the Barberton Granite Greenstone Terrain (3.55–3.22 Ga). The BGB is a small, cusp-shaped succession of volcanic and sedimentary rocks, surrounded on all sides by granitoid plutons which range in age from >3547 to <3225 Ma. It is commonly known as the type locality of the ultramafic, extrusive volcanic rock, the komatiite. Greenstone belts are geologic regions generally composed of mafic to ultramafic volcanic sequences that have undergone metamorphism. These belts are associated with sedimentary rocks that occur within Archean and Proterozoic cratons between granitic bodies. Their name is derived from the green hue that comes from the metamorphic minerals associated with the mafic rocks. These regions are theorized to have formed at ancient oceanic spreading centers and island arcs. In simple terms, greenstone belts are described as metamorphosed volcanic belts. Being one of the few most well-preserved Archean portions of the crust, with Archean felsic volcanic rocks, the BGB is well studied. It provides present geologic evidence of Earth during the Archean (pre-3.0 Ga). Despite the BGB being a well studied area, its tectonic evolution has been the cause of much debate.

Eastern Pilbara Craton

The Eastern Pilbara Craton is the eastern portion of the Pilbara Craton located in Western Australia. This region contains variably metamorphosed mafic and ultramafic greenstone belt rocks, intrusive granitic dome structures, and volcanic sedimentary rocks. These greenstone belts worldwide are thought to be the remnants of ancient volcanic belts, and are subject to much debate in today's scientific community. Areas such as Isua and Barberton which have similar lithologies and ages as Pilbara have been argued to be subduction accretion arcs, while others suggest that they are the result of vertical tectonics. This debate is crucial to investigating when/how plate tectonics began on Earth. The Pilbara Craton along with the Kaapvaal Craton are the only remaining areas of the Earth with pristine 3.6–2.5 Ga crust. The extremely old and rare nature of this crustal region makes it a valuable resource in the understanding of the evolution of the Archean Earth.

The geology of Eswatini formed beginning 3.6 billion years ago, in the Archean Eon of the Precambrian. Eswatini is the only country entirely underlain by the Kaapvaal Craton, one of the oldest pieces of stable continental crust and the only craton regarded as "pristine" by geologists, other than the Yilgarn Craton in Australia. As such, the country has very ancient granite, gneiss and in some cases sedimentary rocks from the Archean into the Proterozoic, overlain by sedimentary rocks and igneous rocks formed during the last 541 million years of the Phanerozoic as part of the Karoo Supergroup. Intensive weathering has created thick zones of saprolite and heavily weathered soils.

Archean felsic volcanic rocks

Archean felsic volcanic rocks are felsic volcanic rocks that were formed in the Archean Eon. The term "felsic" means that the rocks have silica content of 62–78%. Given that the Earth formed at ~4.5 billion year ago, Archean felsic volcanic rocks provide clues on the Earth's first volcanic activities on the Earth's surface started 500 million years after the Earth's formation.

The geology of the Northwest Territories has been mapped in different quadrangles by the Canadian government. The region has some of the oldest rocks in the world and among the oldest in North America, formed from several sections of stable craton continental crust, including the Slave Craton, Rae Craton and Hearne Craton. These rocks form the Archean and Proterozoic Precambrian basement rock of the region and are the subject of extensive research to understand continental crust and tectonic conditions on the early Earth.

References

  1. 1 2 Neuendorf, K.K.E., J.P. Mehl, Jr., and J.A. Jackson, eds. (2005) Glossary of Geology (5th ed.). Alexandria, Virginia, American Geological Institute. 779 pp. ISBN   0-922152-76-4
  2. 1 2 3 Le Maitre, R.W., A. Streckeisen, B. Zanettin, M. J. Le Bas, B. Bonin, and P. Bateman, eds., (2005) Igneous Rocks: A Classification and Glossary of Terms Recommendations of the International Union of Geological Sciences Subcommission on the Systematics of Igneous Rocks. United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press Cambridge. 256 pp. ISBN   9780521619486
  3. 1 2 Condie, K.C. (1981) Archean Greenstone Belts. Developments in Precambrian Geology, vol. 3. New york, New York, Elservier. 434 p. ISBN   0-444-41854-7
  4. ↑ Aldrovandi, U. (1648) Bononiensis Musæi Metallici. Bologna, Ferronii. 992 pp.
  5. ↑ Johannsen, A. (1938) A Descriptive Petrography of the Igneous Rocks. Volume 4, Part 1, The Feldspathoid Rocks and Part II, The Peridotites and Perknites. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 523 pp.
  6. 1 2 3 Arndt, N., and Fowler A.D. (2004) Textures in komatiites and variolitic basalts. In: Erikson, K. ed., The Precambrian Earth: Tempos and Events. Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp 298–311. ISBN   978-0444515063
  7. 1 2 Sandsta, N.R., B. Robins, H. Furnes, and M. de Wit (2011) The origin of large varioles in flow-banded pillow lava from the Hooggenoeg Complex, Barberton Greenstone Belt, South Africa. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology. vol. 162, no. 2, pp. 365–377.
  8. 1 2 Fowler A.D., L.S. Jensen, and S.A. Peloquin (1987) Varioles in Archean basalts; products of spherulitic crystallization. Canadian Mineralogist. vol. 25, pp. 275–289
  9. ↑ Phillips, W.J. (1973). Interpretation of crystalline spheroidal structures in igneous rocks. Lithos . vol. 6, pp. 235-244.
  10. ↑ Cas, R.A.F., and J.V. Wright (1987) Volcanic Successions, Modern and Ancient: A Geological Approach to Processes, Products, and Succession United Kingdom, London, Allen & Unwin. 528 p. ISBN   978-0-412-44640-5
  11. ↑ Lewis, J.V. (1914) Origin of Pillow Lava. Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. vol. 25, pp. 15-25.
  12. ↑ Snavely, P.D., Maceod, N.S., and Holly, C.W. (1973) Miocene tholeiitic basalts of coastal Oregon and Washington and their relations to coeval basalts of the Columbia Plateau. Geological Society of America Bulletin. vol. 84, pp. 387–424
  13. ↑ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Variolites"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 921.
  14. ↑ Buffet-Croix-Blanche, G. (1989) Volcans fossiles dans la region du parc national des Ecrins; sept excursions pour une initiation volcanologique sur des lambeaux de volcans dates de 200 millions d'années. Parc National des Ecrins, France. 73 p.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.