Warbling white-eye

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Warbling white-eye
Japanese white-eye at Tennoji Park in Osaka, January 2016 III.jpg
Osaka, Japan
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Zosteropidae
Genus: Zosterops
Species:
Z. japonicus
Binomial name
Zosterops japonicus

The warbling white-eye (Zosterops japonicus) is a small passerine bird in the white-eye family. The specific epithet is occasionally written japonica, but this is incorrect due to the gender of the genus. Its native range includes much of East Asia, including the Russian Far East, Japan, Indonesia, Korea, and the Philippines. It has been intentionally introduced to other parts of the world as a pet and as pest control, with mixed results. As one of the native species of the Japanese islands, it has been depicted in Japanese art on numerous occasions, and historically was kept as a cage bird.

Contents

Taxonomy

The warbling white-eye was described by the ornithologists Coenraad Jacob Temminck and Hermann Schlegel in 1847 from a specimen collected in Japan. They coined the binomial name Zosterops japonicus. [2] [3]

The English name "Japanese white-eye" was formerly used for Zosterops japonicus and what are now the Philippine subspecies of Z. japonicus were treated as a separate species, the "mountain white-eye" Z. montanus. A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2018 found that Z. montanus and several subspecies of Z. japonicus were conspecific, and they were therefore lumped together. They were placed in Z. japonicus Temminck & Schlegel, 1845 as this has priority over Z. montanus (Bonaparte, 1850). The new English name "warbling white-eye" was introduced for the combined taxa. At the same time, several other subspecies of the former Z. japonicus were split off into their own separate species, Swinhoe's white-eye Z. simplex. [4] [5]

There are 15 recognised subspecies many of which are island endemics: [5]

Description

The warbling white-eye is olive green on its back, from anterior to posterior, and is pale green on its underside. Its feet, legs, and bill range from black to brown. [6] It has a green forehead and a yellow throat. The white-eye has rounded wings and a long, slender bill – both of which indicate this bird to be very acrobatic. Its wings are dark brown but outlined in green. Like other white-eyes, this species exhibits the distinctive white eyering that gives it its name (mejiro, as the bird is known in Japan, translates to "white eye"). Adults range from 4 to 4.5 in (10 to 11 cm) in length, and weigh between 9.75 and 12.75 grams. [6]

Behavior

Courting Japanese White-eye RWD1.jpg
Courting

This bird species is rarely found on the ground. It is a very sociable species that may form flocks with other species, in which the birds form groups to forage during flight; white-eyes only flock with birds of other species outside of the breeding season. [6] Allopreening – the art of cleaning, grooming, and maintaining parts of the body – is extremely common. Interspecific allopreening (between different species) has been observed in captivity. [6] While sociable, however, the white-eye typically forms monogamous relationships with mates – it has only one mate at any one time.

Social hierarchy in a flock is established through physical displays. Some of these displays are not sex dependent, such as wing flicks exposing the underwing, wing flutters and vibrations, as well as open beak displays and beak snaps (rapid shutting of the beak to make a snapping noise). [6] During breeding seasons, however, males establish territories via the sex-specific activity of singing loudly. [6] Males will fend off intruders of the same species, yet will allow other species of birds to nest inside of their territory.

Nesting

Pairs of individuals, generally monogamous, choose a location for the nest between 1 and 30 meters above ground level. [6] Construction of the nest lasts 7–10 days on average, and a variety of nesting material may be used (living and non-living); spider webs, moss, lichens, and mammal hair are all examples of building media that the birds employ. When building nests, they often steal material from the nests of other birds. [7] Nests tend to be cup shaped, with a diameter of 56.2 mm and a depth of 41.7 mm. [6] The majority of nests are only used once, but some may be used up to three times in any given season. [6]

Feeding

The species is omnivorous, living on a diet of fruit from several species of flowering plants, various types of insects, and nectar at all levels of foliage. It feeds on insects by searching the leaves of flowers and scouring tree bark for larvae. [8] Consequences of its diet include regulation of local insect populations and dispersal of seeds; however, the white-eye's seed-dispersal ability does not seem to be significant in Hawaii. [9]

Distribution

The warbling white-eye is found in Japan, Korea, Taiwan, eastern China, and the northern Philippines. Migratory populations of the bird spend winters in Burma, Thailand, Hainan Island, and Vietnam. The white-eye is widespread and common in Japan, considered one of the more dominant bird species. [10]

In spring 2018 there were several sightings of Japanese white-eyes in Southern California, with confirmed breeding in San Diego County as of 2019. [11] However, in 2019 the California birds were reclassified as belonging to a newly designated species, Swinhoe's white-eye. [12] [13] The dominant white-eye population in Taiwan has similarly been reassigned to Swinhoe's.

Hawaii

The warbling white-eye, originally introduced in O’ahu in 1929, has rapidly expanded its population and can now be found on every island of Hawaii; the climates of these islands range from tropical rain forests to deciduous forests. [14] After subsequent releases and natural range expansion (enlargement of the area it occupies), the white-eye was determined to be the most abundant land bird on the Hawaiian Islands as early as 1987. [15] It has become a vector for avian parasites that are now known to adversely affect populations of native birds such as Hawaiian honeycreepers, as well as spreading invasive plant species through discarded seeds.

Predators

Organisms known to prey upon native Hawaiian avian species include small mammals, like the Polynesian, black, and Norway rats, and the mongoose. [16] There are no documented predators of the warbling white-eye. It can only be inferred that organisms that prey on small mammals and birds in the same area as the warbling white-eye also prey on the white-eye itself.

Competitors

In its natural habitat, the warbling white-eye competes with other native passerine bird species, including those of the same genus, such as the Bonin white-eye (Apalopteron familiare). [17] In Hawaii, the warbling white-eye competes with native passerines such as the common 'amakihi, for food (such as nectar and fruit), as well as for space. [18] [19] In Hawaii, the warbling white-eye has been observed visiting endemic (native) floral species thought to have coevolved with endemic nectarivorous avian species (those that eat nectar). [15] This means that, over time, changes in native flowers have triggered changes in native birds that feed on the nectar of these flowers; the latter change then triggers another change in the flowers, and the whole process continues to repeat itself. The visitation of the white-eye, along with the disappearance of those endemic nectarivorous passerine bird species, suggests that the white-eye is out-competing those endemic species for the floral resource (nectar).

Conservation

Native species need normal juvenile mass and bill length to recover and persist, but for this to happen, food must be restored to former levels. There is support that an introduced bird, such as the warbling white-eye, is responsible for the food shortage. Control of the white-eye is therefore essential for the recovery of native Hawaiian birds. [20] The determination of the status of native birds is essential; those found to be endangered could possibly benefit from the designation of critical habitat. [19] In 1980, a program to eradicate the Indian white-eye in California involved mist-netting and shooting the birds, and this proved to be the most successful of the various capture methods explored. [21] Whether eradication is feasible and applicable to other instances of invasive exotic birds is yet to be determined, but could be considered a possibility for the eradication of the warbling white-eye in the Hawaiian Islands. However, because the white eye's current ecological role is not fully understood (i.e. seed disperser, pollinator, etc.) further studies are necessary before any drastic measures are taken.

Related Research Articles

<i>Zosterops</i> Genus of birds

Zosterops is a genus of passerine birds containing the typical white-eyes in the white-eye family Zosteropidae. The genus has the largest number of species in the white-eye family. They occur in the Afrotropical, Indomalayan, and Australasian realms. Typical white-eyes have a length of between 8 and 15 cm. Their most characteristic feature is a conspicuous white feather ring around the eye, though some species lack it. The species in this group vary in the structural adaptations of the tongue. The Zosterops [griseotinctus] group is an example of a "great speciator" inhabiting a vast area and showing a remarkable morphological differentiation on islands, some of which maybe as close as 2 km (1.2 mi) apart.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-eye</span> Family of birds

The white-eyes are a family, Zosteropidae, of small passerine birds native to tropical, subtropical and temperate Sub-Saharan Africa, southern and eastern Asia, and Australasia. White-eyes inhabit most tropical islands in the Indian Ocean, the western Pacific Ocean, and the Gulf of Guinea. Discounting some widespread members of the genus Zosterops, most species are endemic to single islands or archipelagos. The silvereye, Zosterops lateralis, naturally colonised New Zealand, where it is known as the "wax-eye" or tauhou ("stranger"), from 1855. The silvereye has also been introduced to the Society Islands in French Polynesia, while the Japanese white-eye has been introduced to Hawaii.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Silvereye</span> Species of bird

The silvereye or wax-eye, also known by its Māori name tauhou, is a very small omnivorous passerine bird of the south-west Pacific. In Australia and New Zealand its common name is sometimes white-eye, but this name is more commonly used to refer to all members of the genus Zosterops, or the entire family Zosteropidae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Indian white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Indian white-eye, formerly the Oriental white-eye, is a small species of passerine bird in the white-eye family. It is a resident breeder in open woodland on the Indian subcontinent. They forage in small groups, feeding on nectar and small insects. They are easily identified by the distinctive white eye-ring and overall yellowish upperparts. The range previously extended eastwards to Southeast Asia, Indonesia and Malaysia. Their name was recently changed due to previous members of Zosterops palpebrosus in Southeast Asia being renamed to a new species, making the Indian White-eye a more geographically accurate term for this species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Sri Lanka white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Sri Lanka white-eye is a small passerine bird in the white-eye family, which is endemic to Sri Lanka. It is a resident breeder in forests, gardens and plantations, mainly in the highlands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Mauritius olive white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Mauritius olive white-eye is a very rare and localized passerine from the family of white-eyes (Zosteropidae). It is one of two white-eye species endemic to the island of Mauritius, the other being the Mauritius grey white-eye.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">White-chested white-eye</span> Species of bird

The white-chested white-eye also known as white-breasted white-eye or Norfolk white-eye is a passerine from the family Zosteropidae. It is endemic to Norfolk Island between New Caledonia and New Zealand and it is regarded as either extremely rare or possibly extinct. Since 2000 the Australian government has considered the species extinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Réunion grey white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Réunion grey white-eye is a small passerine from the family Zosteropidae, which is native to the islands of Réunion.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Bonin white-eye</span> Small songbird endemic to the Bonin Islands of Japan

The Bonin white-eye is a small species of songbird endemic to the Bonin Islands of Japan. It is the only species in the monotypic genus Apalopteron. The taxonomic affinities of the Bonin white-eye were a long-standing mystery and it was formerly placed with the bulbuls, babblers and more recently with the honeyeaters, during which it was known as the Bonin honeyeater. Since 1995 it is known to be a white-eye in the family Zosteropidae, that is closely related to the golden white-eye of the Marianas Islands.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cape white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Cape white-eye is a small passerine bird in the white-eye family. It is native to southern Africa. It is commonly found in suburbia, parks and gardens, besides a variety of mesic to well-watered habitats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Golden white-eye</span> Bird in the white-eye family from the Northern Mariana Islands

The golden white-eye is a species of bird in the white-eye family, Zosteropidae. It is the only species within the genus Cleptornis. The golden white-eye was once considered to be a honeyeater in the family Meliphagidae and although it is now known to be a white-eye, its position within that family is still uncertain. The species is restricted to the islands of Saipan and Aguijan in the Northern Mariana Islands, where it is sympatric and competes with the related bridled white-eye. The golden white-eye has golden plumage and a pale eye-ring. It feeds on insects, fruit, and nectar and forages in pairs or small family groups. The bird is monogamous and lays two eggs in a small cup nest.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Vanuatu white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Vanuatu white-eye or yellow-fronted white-eye is a small passerine bird belonging to the genus Zosterops in the white-eye family Zosteropidae. It is endemic to Vanuatu, where it is one of the most common birds.

<i>Rhodoleia</i> Genus of plants

Rhodoleia is a genus of plants in the family Hamamelidaceae. Together with its sister genus Exbucklandia, Rhodoleia forms the sister clade to the other 25 genera of Hamamelidaceae. Flowers of Rhodoleia are bird-pollinated. Nectar-foraging birds including Japanese white-eyes and fork-tailed sunbirds, avidly visit the flowers, which they also pollinate in the process.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lord Howe silvereye</span> Subspecies of bird

The Lord Howe silvereye, also known as the Lord Howe white-eye, Lord Howe Island white-eye or, locally, as the "Little Grinnell", is a small bird in the white-eye family, Zosteropidae. It is a subspecies of the silvereye, though sometimes considered a full species. It is endemic to Lord Howe Island in the Tasman Sea, part of New South Wales, Australia.

The Seram white-eye is a small passerine bird in the white-eye family. It is an endemic resident breeder in open woodland in Seram, Indonesia.

Z. japonica may refer to:

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Capricorn silvereye</span> Subspecies of bird

The Capricorn silvereye, also known as the Capricorn white-eye or green-headed white-eye, is a small greenish bird in the Zosteropidae or white-eye family. It is a subspecies of the silvereye that occurs on islands off the coast of Queensland in north-eastern Australia, and which is sometimes considered to be a full species.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Japanese white-eye in Hawaii</span> Species of bird

Along with a number of other organisms, the Japanese white-eye has become an invasive species in Hawaii. Its native range includes much of East Asia, including Japan, China, Vietnam, Taiwan, and the Philippines.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orange River white-eye</span> Species of bird

The Orange River white-eye is a species of bird in the family Zosteropidae, which is native to Namibia and South Africa. It was formerly deemed conspecific with the Cape white-eye, but the two species occur sympatrically in central South Africa, and they are genetically distinct.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Swinhoe's white-eye</span> Species of bird

Swinhoe's white-eye is a bird species in the white-eye family Zosteropidae. It is found in east China, Taiwan, north Vietnam, the Thai-Malay Peninsula, Sumatra and Borneo. Populations have also been introduced throughout Southern California.

References

  1. ↑ BirdLife International (2019). "Zosterops japonicus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2019: e.T155158005A155636070. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T155158005A155636070.en . Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ↑ Temminck, Coenraad Jacob; Schlegel, Hermann (1844–1850). Siebold, Philipp Franz von (ed.). Fauna Japonica (in French). Vol. 4 Aves. Lugduni Batavorum (Leiden): Apud Auctorem. p. 57, Plate 22.
  3. ↑ Mlíkovský, Jiří (2012). "The dating of Temminck & Schlegel's "Fauna Japonica: Aves", with implications for the nomenclature of birds". Zoological Bibliography. 2: 108–117.
  4. ↑ Lim, B.T.M.; Sadanandan, K.R.; Dingle, C.; Leung, Y.Y.; Prawiradilaga, D.M.; Irham, M.; Ashari, H.; Lee, J.G.H.; Rheindt, F.E. (2018). "Molecular evidence suggests radical revision of species limits in the great speciator white‑eye genus Zosterops". Journal of Ornithology. 160: 1–16. doi:10.1007/s10336-018-1583-7. S2CID   51890116.
  5. 1 2 Gill, Frank; Donsker, David, eds. (2019). "Sylviid babblers, parrotbills, white-eyes". World Bird List Version 9.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 23 January 2019.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 van Riper SG. (2000) "Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonicus)" in The Birds of North America, no. 487. A. Poole and F. Gill (Eds.). Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia, and American Ornithologists' Union, Washington, D.C.
  7. ↑ Guest, Sandra J. (1973) A reproductive biology and natural history of the Japanese White-eye (Zosterops japonica japonica) in urban Oahu. Technical Report 29. Island Ecosystems. US International Biological Program.
  8. ↑ Eddinger, CR (1970). "The White-eye as an interspecific feeding helper". Condor. 72 (2): 240. doi:10.2307/1366644. JSTOR   1366644.
  9. ↑ Larosa AM; Smith CW; Gardner DE (1985). "Role of Alien and Native Birds in the Dissemination of Firetree (Myricafaya Ait.-Myricaceae) and Associated Plants in Hawaii" (PDF). Pacific Science. 39 (4): 372–378.
  10. ↑ Atkins China Ltd. (1997) Route 9 Detailed Feasibility Study. Final Environmental Impact Assessment Report, 6: 49–60.
  11. ↑ "ebird.org species map". ebird.org. Retrieved 29 May 2018.
  12. ↑ "2019 eBird Taxonomy Update". ebird.org. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  13. ↑ "eBird species map". ebird.org. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  14. ↑ Global invasive species database [database on the Internet]. Zosterops japonicus (bird): Invasive Species Specialist Group, IUCN Species Survival Commission. [cited 2011 March 18].
  15. 1 2 Lammers TG; Weller SG; Sakai AK (1987). "Japanese White-eye, an Introduced Passerine, Visits the Flowers of Clermontia arhorescens, an Endemic Hawaiian Lobelioid" (PDF). Pacific Science. 41: 1–4.
  16. ↑ Fielder, PL & Kareiva, PM (1998). Conservation Biology: For the Coming Decade. New York: Chapman & Hall. doi : 10.1007/978-1-4615-6051-7. ISBN   978-0-412-09661-7.
  17. ↑ Work TM; Massey JG (1998). "Survival and physiologic response of Common Amakihi and Japanese White-eyes during simulated translocation". Condor. 101 (1): 21–27. doi:10.2307/1370442. JSTOR   1370442.
  18. ↑ Mountainspring S; Scott JM (1985). "Interspecific Competition Among Hawaiian Forest Birds". Ecological Monographs. 55 (2): 219–239. Bibcode:1985EcoM...55..219M. doi:10.2307/1942558. JSTOR   1942558.
  19. 1 2 Gibson L. (2000) Rules and Regulations. Federal Register, 65(75): 20760-20769.
  20. ↑ Freed LA; Cann RL (2009). "Negative Effects of an Introduced Bird Species on Growth and Survival in a Native Bird Community". Current Biology. 19 (20): 1736–1740. Bibcode:2009CBio...19.1736F. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.044 . PMID   19765990.
  21. ↑ Van Way V. (1984) "The White-eyes Eradication Efforts in California". Proceedings of the Eleventh Vertebrate Pest Conference (1984), University of Nebraska.
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