World Expo 88, also known as Expo 88, was a specialised Expo held in Brisbane, the state capital of Queensland, Australia, during a six-month period between Saturday, 30 April 1988 and Sunday, 30 October 1988, inclusive. The theme of the Expo was "Leisure in the Age of Technology", and the mascot for the Expo was an Australian platypus named Expo Oz.[1]
The A$625 million fair was the largest event of the 1988 Bicentennial celebrations of the arrival of the First Fleet in Sydney Harbour.[2][3][4] Expo 88 attracted more than 15,760,000 visitors who bought tickets worth A$175 million.[5] The event achieved both its economic aims and very good attendances, was successfully used to promote Queensland as a tourist destination and it spurred a major re-development at the South Brisbane site.[6] The core feature of the site were the international pavilions.[5] Many of the exposition's sculptures and buildings were retained by various entities around the state and are still in use or on display today.[7]
History
Origins
The first thoughts of a world expo for Brisbane began soon after James Maccormick, architect for the Australia Pavilion at Expo '67, Expo '70 and Expo '74, was commissioned to do an urban renewal study for Kangaroo Point in the early 70s. It occurred to Maccormick that an exposition would be an ideal catalyst for such a redevelopment, and he later hosted meetings with prominent Queensland business persons and government representatives to discuss the idea.[8] With the Australian Bicentenary looming in 1988, other Australian capitals sought means by which to celebrate the event, including hosting of a Universal Exposition or the Summer Olympic Games. Sydney and Melbourne both made representations to the Federal Government for matching dollar for dollar funding for a Universal Exposition in the 1988 bicentennial year, however, citing the costs of the new Parliament House in Canberra, also to be opened in the same year, these proposals were knocked back. But 12 years later the 2000 Summer Olympics were held in Sydney, and Brisbane will be the 2032 Summer Olympics host city .[9]
Expo 88 Brisbane River Entertainment, Brisbane, c30 April 1988
Brisbane, under Premier Sir Joh Bjelke-Petersen, then developed Maccomick's earlier proposal to host an international-scale exposition, however at no cost to the Australian taxpayer, a world's first 'free enterprise' World Exposition, which the Federal Government rubber stamped.[citation needed]
With federal representation, at the December 1983 Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) General Assembly, Brisbane won the right to hold the 1988 World Exposition, as a specialised international exposition. Immediately, the Brisbane Exposition and South Bank Redevelopment Authority was formed with Sir Llewellyn Edwards, State Deputy Premier, at the helm. Maccormick later was appointed as Joint Chief Architect of the Expo, under the architectural firm Bligh Maccormick 88.
Construction
Expo 88 site, c1987
World Expo 88 occupied a mixed usage 40-hectare (98.8 acres) resumed (acquired/taken, as in "Eminent Domain") parcel of land on the South Bank of the Brisbane River, opposite the city's central business district. For many years this mainly industrial area had been largely derelict. Stanley Street was permanently excised between Melbourne Street and Vulture Street while Grey Street was reinstated after the showground was demolished. The creation of Expo, along with the recent construction of the Queensland Cultural Centre, helped to revive the area.[10] Construction was coordinated by Brisbane-based Thiess Contractors Pty Ltd.
Around 100 works of sculpture were either commissioned, purchased or borrowed for World Expo 88 at a cost of $25 million. Large sun sails were erected over the site to provide shade from the hot Queensland climate.[11] These became an icon of the Expo, becoming an element of Expo's sun-sails logo. Two thousand kilometres of telecommunication wire were laid during construction of the site.[11]
A A$4.5 million 88-metre (289.37911 feet) symbolic tower for the Expo was constructed, called The Night Companion (also known as "The Skyneedle"), which featured a gold and copper dome black spire top, with a xenon laser beam eye that scanned the Brisbane horizons each Expo evening up to 60 kilometres (37mi) away.
The main entry gate was the Melbourne Street gate at the northern end of the campus, located on the current Grey Street alongside South Brisbane Station.
Monorail
Expo 88 monorail
A Von Roll MkIImonorail was constructed for World Expo 88 to take visitors quickly around the Expo site. Costing A$12 million, it consisted of 2 stations at either end of the site, 2.3 kilometres (1.4mi) of track and 4 nine-carriage trains. The route included going through the Queensland Pavilion, across the Pacific Lagoon and beside the Brisbane River. The system was able to carry 44,000 passengers per day. Following Expo, one of the trains and some track joined the existing Sea World Monorail System at Sea World on the Gold Coast. The other three trains were bought back by Von Roll and are now running at the German theme park Europa-Park in Rust since 1995.[12][13]
The Fair
World Expo 88 – showing sunsails and monorailExpo 88 at night – showing the 88-metre high Skyneedle
A ticket to the fair allowed entry to the World Expo Parkamusement park at the same location. Although originally intended to be a permanent feature, the park remained open for only one year after Expo had closed.[14] The fair was open daily from 10am to 10pm.
The Expo sunsails and the Expo tower Night Companion can be seen clearly here, as well as the monorail. Some of the rides of the World Expo Park can be seen in the background. The 'cubistic flotilla' can be seen in the foreground. World Expo 88 was opened by Queen Elizabeth II on Saturday, 30 April 1988 to much fanfare. The fair attracted more than 18 million visitors, including staff and VIPs, more than double the predicted 7.8 million, and was considered a turning point in the history of Brisbane, which had recently successfully hosted the 1982 Commonwealth Games. With Expo 88 Queensland had transformed itself from a northern backwater into Australia's "most progressive state".[6]
The Commissioner General for World Expo 88 was Sir Edward Williams (who was also the Chairman for the also very successful 1982 Commonwealth Games). The Chairman and Chief Executive Officer, the former State Government Minister Sir Llewellyn Edwards, was appointed in February 1984.[6] The General Manager was Bob Miniken and the Entertainment Director was Ric Birch (who would soon become one of the greatest experts in Olympic ceremonies and large-scale events in the world). Landscaping at the site was done by Brisbane landscape architect Lawrie Smith. The landscaping was based on nine precincts and used more than 150,000 temperate and tropical plants.[6]
A panorama view of the stage and Brisbane River during World Expo 88
British PavilionSound sensitive fountains outside the West German Pavilion
Despite late entrants into the Exposition due to domestic political measures, World Expo 88 attracted some 100 pavilions, from 52 governments, of which 36 were from international-level, and numerous corporate participants. Major western and European nations were represented such as the United States, the Soviet Union (last representation at a World Exposition), France, West Germany (also last representation at a World Exposition), the United Kingdom, Canada, Spain and Greece, as well as major Asian countries such as Singapore, Thailand, Nepal, Pakistan, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, South Korea, Indonesia, and the Philippines, and amongst others. Close neighbouring countries, New Zealand and Papua New Guinea were also represented.
Corporate pavilions included IBM, Ford, Fujitsu, Queensland Newspapers, Australia Post, Cadbury Chocolate, Suncorp, and the Queensland Teachers Credit Union. NASA and Universal Studios hosted outdoor exhibits, with models of the Space Shuttle and Apollo program, as well as the car KITT from the TV series Knight Rider. Also having its own pavilion was the official Australian TV partner of the Expo, Network Ten, via its Queensland station TVQ, whose news studios were located there for public tours and during the Expo also switched channel frequencies in September (from channel 0 to channel 10) in line with the other state channels.
The most expensive pavilion was Japan (A$26 million), followed by the Queensland Pavilion (A$20 million) and the Australia Pavilion (A$18 million). The largest Pavilions were also Queensland,[6] followed by Australia then Japan.
High-definition television received its Australian premiere at the Japan Pavilion, and the text-based Internet at the Swiss Pavilion. At the University pavilion the world's longest lab experiment was on display. The pitch drop experiment, which features tar pitch slowly dripping through a funnel at a rate of nine drops in 81 years, actually made an unseen drop while on display.[15]
The most popular pavilion was New Zealand[16] with its animated Footrot Flats show and glow worm cave followed by Australia, with its special effects 'Dreamtime Theatre'; Queensland, with its popular 180-metre long people mover ride through Queensland of the present and the future; Japan with its Japan Pond and Garden and hi-tech displays; Switzerland, with its artificial snow ski slope and cable car ride; and Nepal, with its 3-level hand-crafted Nepalese Peace Pagoda.
Architecture
For the most part, pavilions were housed in pre-fabricated units constructed by the expo authority, with the exception of the Nepalese Peace Pagoda, of Nepal, and aspects of the Kingdom of Thailand Pavilion, amongst others. The Australia Pavilion and Queensland Pavilion, side by side, were also custom-made, with the exterior of the Australia Pavilion notably in the shape and colours of Uluru (Ayers Rock). The Queensland Pavilion was designed by Robin Gibson.[6]
Theming
Sunsails logo and World Expo '88 sign at night
Sunsails Logo
Globe Logo
World Expo '88 Logos
The Australian Platypus Expo Oz was a part of the success of the Expo
As well as the popular platypus mascot Expo Oz, designed by Disney's Imagineering Division, there were several themed initiatives that promoted World Expo 88, most notably the Expo's two interchangeable brands (as noted above): one, a boomerang-styled '88' on a wire frame globe, and the colourful sunsails logo, which superimposed aspects of the Expo's entertainment on a relief of one of the Expo's popular sun sails (designed by Ken Cato, of Cato Purnell Partners). There was also a new weekly theme which allowed special-interest groups to entertain.[5]
The logos were used extensively throughout the Expo site as well as souvenirs, and a costume Expo Oz could be seen as part of the daily parades, shows, and other variety performances. Over 500 items of souvenir memorabilia were made using Expo Oz's image. Expo Oz also featured in extensive international tours in the lead-up to the Expo, to Europe, the US and Japan.
The theme song of the Expo, 'Together We'll Show the World!' by Frank Millward and Carol Lloyd,[17] was also an important rallying point in promoting the Expo in the lead-up to and during phases of the fair, and captured a sense of the excitement of the Expo.
The colourful theme for the Australia Pavilion, which became synonymous with the hosting of the Expo with Australia as host nation, was designed by prominent Australian artist Ken Done, and featured huge playful colourful letters making up the word Australia in an Australia Pavilion Entrance set, and Exit set, with the entrance set a stack of nine, 3x3, some 2.1 metres high each, and the exit set, in a line of nine letters, some 5.6 metres high each. These letters became a very popular photo opportunity for the Expo, and the theme was also found on the brightly coloured Australia Pavilion uniforms also.
5 heritage-listed buildings in South Brisbane were refurbished and repurposed for Expo 88. They were retained after its closure and can still be seen today: Plough Inn, Ship Inn, Central House, Collin's Place Spaghetti House, and South Brisbane Municipal Library.[18] The Expo House building on Sidon Street, which housed 'Club 88' and administrative offices, has been incorporated into today's Griffith University South Bank Campus.[18]
Entertainment
The $38 million entertainment program featured acts from all over Australia and the world at a variety of custom-made performance venues on the World Expo 88 site from the 10,000-seat spectacular open-air River Stage (for national day events, opening and closing ceremonies and large-scale events), the 850-seat piazza for circus, marching band, acrobatics, magic and mime, and the smaller-scale amphitheatre for national day ceremonies and laser shows. The River Stage was also the venue for the popular evening fireworks and large-scale laser show, set to music,[5] each Expo evening at 10 pm.
The exposition averaged 100,000 visitors a day, with highest day of attendance being 184,000 visitors on 29 October 1988, the last day before the closing ceremony.
Network Ten was the official television broadcast partner for Expo 88.[19]
At the closing ceremony of World Expo 88 at the River Stage, a concert showcased all the Expo's entertainers singing and dancing. The concert finished up with the Australianpop-folk band, The Seekers, singing one of their songs "The Carnival Is Over" at the very end of the celebrations, in what has become an Australian tradition. As Judith Durham refused perform for the Expo '88 Closing Ceremony celebrations (due to her sentiments of what happened to the aborigines),[20] Australian soprano Julie Anthony joined the group as the lead vocalist in her stead. During the events of the Expo's closing ceremony, the Night Companion's light beam was stilled. Sir Llewellyn Edwards concluded the Expo with the words "With the Prime Minister, Mr Premier, my Lord Mayor, distinguished guests, and ladies and gentlemen – as the Prime Minister indicated, the carnival is now over, Expo '88 has come to a close.....Thank you for all that have contributed and may the light of World Expo 88 never really fade." .[21] A massive fireworks display, the longest in Australia at the time,[6] soon followed, with a burning icon of the World Expo 88 sun sails logo set alight on the Brisbane River.
Legacy
The Nepalese Peace Pagoda and South Bank Parklands
After the end of World Expo 88, various contingency plans were mooted as to possible future developments. One proposal was for a second central business district area to be developed, however this proposal was rejected. A second proposal, incorporating extensive parklands, boutique retail, as well as low-medium residential development, was later accepted, and four years after the closure of World Expo 88, the site was reopened as South Bank Parklands, which is managed by the South Bank Corporation, a State Government corporation.
The only remaining trace of the Exposition on the former site is the Nepalese Peace Pagoda, part of the Nepalese representation, a traditional three-storey handmade wooden replica of a Pagoda in Kathmandu. The popular boardwalk eateries at the southern end of the Expo 88 site were replaced by River Quay Green and modern restaurants in 2011.
Riverstage and the Courier Mail Piazza
Two of the most popular performing arts venues from World Expo 88 took on a new form at the conclusion of the Expo as Riverstage (at the new venue in the City Botanic Gardens), and the Courier Mail Piazza (formerly called the Suncorp Piazza) at the South Bank Parklands. These two outdoor performing arts venues today welcome visitors to a variety of performing arts genres.
The Skyneedle
The Skyneedle at World Expo '88
The Skyneedle (or "Night Companion") is 88m (289ft)-high and beams light skywards with a visibility of more than 60km (37mi) during special events.
The Skyneedle, which was originally built for World Expo 88, was to be relocated to Tokyo Disneyland after the Expo. Hairdresser and local celebrity Stefan bought the rights and moved it 500m (1,600ft) from its original location at South Bank to his corporate headquarters in South Brisbane, where it remains a local landmark.
Sculpture park
During World Expo 88, the park was filled with 90 sculptures, one of the largest and most prestigious displays the country had ever hosted.[22] Sixteen pieces were commissioned for the event, while others were on loan. Also the 88-strong white fibreglass 'Human Factor' sculpture series which captured the whimsy of persons in day-to-day life,[23] were also put up for private sale, with many of them being purchased for shopping centres and arcades. Some of the works that were for sale have been purchased by the Brisbane City Council and are on display at various places in the city today, most notably Gidon Graetz's work Mirage in the Brisbane Arcade and American sculptor Jon Barlow Hudson's work Morning Star II located in the City Botanic Gardens. A sectional model or maquette of Jon Barlow Hudson's artwork Paradigm is on display outside State Library of Queensland.[24]
One can view and take part in a Heritage Walk of some of the major works at the World Expo 88 Art Heritage trail at Celebrate 88.[25]
The colourful, large Australia Pavilion letters, designed by Australian artist Ken Done were synonymous with the success of the Expo, and were purchased by Shaftesbury Citizenship Campus at the end of the Expo, for their Burpengary Campus. The end of Expo till 2008 the letters could be viewed along the Bruce Highway near Burpengary as one approached Brisbane City, a reminder of their successful role at World Expo 88. In 2018, the letters were restored and placed at the Caboolture Historical Village.[26]
World Expo Park – Brisbane Convention & Exhibition Centre
World Expo Park, the Expo's theme park located adjacent to the Expo site, was intended to be a permanent legacy of the Expo at its conclusion. Citing lack of patronage, however, it closed down just a year after the Expo closed its doors. The site of World Expo Park was re-developed into the Brisbane Convention & Exhibition Centre.
Queensland Pavilion
The Queensland Pavilion was purchased by the Gateway Baptist Church, and now stands on their Mackenzie premises.
Victorian Pavilion
The Victorian Pavilion was purchased privately and moved to 77 Shore St West, Cleveland, where it is known as Redland Trade Centre.[27]
Foundation
On 30 April 2004, sixteen years after World Expo 88's official opening, a non-government not-for-profit commemorative entity for the Exposition was launched, named Foundation Expo '88. The Foundation based its activities at the Nepalese Peace Pagoda from the Expo, including a weekly Guided Tours program "Pagoda on Sundays", and hosting at the Pagoda first level a commemorative museum display of memorabilia from Expo, which is still maintained to this day.
For the 10th Anniversary of Foundation Expo '88 in 2014, the Foundation was re-branded into one new entity "Celebrate 88!".
Expo Gold
The Golden Penda tree (Xanthostemon chrysanthus) was selected as the theme plant for Expo 88. Cuttings of the tree, which is native to north Queensland, were taken from a superior form from a garden in Brisbane and planted in flower in Brisbane to create a 'Sea of Gold'. In late autumn, the tree can still be seen in flower in gardens and lining streets across Brisbane.[28] The tree is also the native floral emblem of Cairns.[29][30]
In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, Expo 88 was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "Defining Moment".[31]
Anniversaries
Celebrations for the 20th anniversary were held at South Bank Parklands during May 2008. Celebrations included a charity dinner on 9 May at the Great Hall of the Brisbane Convention & Exhibition Centre, and a community day of celebration on 10 May. It featured entertainment from the Expo, fireworks, interpretive displays and themed walks, and a Suncorp Spirit of Expo Staff Breakfast,[32] also attended by then Lord Mayor of Brisbane Sallyanne Atkinson, and Expo Chair and CEO Sir Llewellyn Edwards.
2013 saw commemorative activities which included a special retrospective exhibition on World Expo 88 entitled "Light Fantastic: Expo 88 Rewired", a special family fun day at the former Expo 88 site, Southbank Parklands, where a special Plaque was also unveiled.[33]
The Brisbane City Council arranged several initiatives to as part of the 30th anniversary celebrations.[34] A special closing event ceremony was held at the Caboolture Historical Village, where the restored Ken Done Australia Pavilion Signs completely restored were unveiled on 28 October 2018.[35]
A world's fair, also known as a universal exhibition or an expo, is a large global exhibition designed to showcase the achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in different parts of the world at a specific site for a period of time, typically between three and six months.
The Bureau international des expositions is an intergovernmental organization created to supervise international exhibitions falling under the jurisdiction of the Convention Relating to International Exhibitions.
The 1982 World's Fair, officially known as the Knoxville International Energy Exposition (KIEE) and simply as Energy Expo '82 and Expo '82, was an international exposition held in Knoxville, Tennessee, United States. Focused on energy and electricity generation, with the theme Energy Turns the World, it was officially registered as a "World's Fair" by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE).
Expo 2010, officially the Expo 2010 Shanghai China, was held on both banks of the Huangpu River in Shanghai, China, from 1 May to 31 October 2010. It was a major World Expo registered by the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE), in the tradition of international fairs and expositions, the first since 2005. The theme of the exposition was "Better City – Better Life" and signifies Shanghai's new status in the 21st century as the "next great world city". The Expo emblem features the Chinese character 世 modified to represent three people together with the 2010 date. It had the largest number of countries participating and was the most expensive Expo in the history of the world's fairs. The Shanghai World Expo was also the largest World's Fair site ever at 5.28 square km.
The Japan World Exposition, Osaka, 1970 or Expo '70 was a world's fair held in Suita, Osaka Prefecture, Japan between March 15 and September 13, 1970. Its theme was "Progress and Harmony for Mankind." In Japanese, Expo '70 is often referred to as Ōsaka Banpaku (大阪万博). It was the first world's fair held in Japan and in Asia.
HemisFair '68 was the official 1968 World's Fair held in San Antonio, Texas, from April 6 through October 6, 1968. Local businessman and civic leader, Jerome K. Harris Sr., coined the name HemisFair and conceived the idea for the fair, hoping it would unite all the cultures that comprise San Antonio and solidify the city's reputation as a cultural and historic destination. With help from commissioner Henry B. Gonzales and other San Antonio leaders, the fair materialized and helped transform the city from a cowtown to one of the largest cities in the country. The theme of the fair was "The Confluence of Civilizations in the Americas", celebrating the many nations which settled the region. The fair was held in 1968 to coincide with the 250th anniversary of the founding of San Antonio in 1718. More than thirty nations and fifteen corporations hosted pavilions at the fair.
Sir Llewellyn Roy Edwards, known as Llew Edwards, was an Australian politician. He was the Liberal Party leader for Queensland. He was Chair and CEO of Brisbane's World Expo '88.
The South Bank Parklands are located at South Bank within the suburb of South Brisbane in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The parkland, on the transformed site of Brisbane's World Expo 88, was officially opened to the public on 20 June 1992.
South Brisbane is an inner southern suburb in the City of Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. In the 2021 census, South Brisbane had a population of 14,292 people.
Expo '74, officially known as the International Exposition on the Environment, Spokane 1974, was a world's fair held May 4, 1974, to November 3, 1974, in Spokane, Washington in the northwest United States. It was the first environmentally themed world's fair and attended by roughly 5.6 million people. The heart of the fair park grounds was located on Canada Island, Havermale Island, and the adjacent south bank of the Spokane River, comprising present-day Riverfront Park, in the center of the city.
A Peace Pagoda is a Buddhist stupa: a monument to inspire peace, designed to provide a focus for people of all races and creeds, and to help unite them in their search for world peace. Most, though not all, peace pagodas built since World War II have been built under the guidance of Nichidatsu Fujii (1885–1985), a Buddhist monk from Japan and founder of the Nipponzan-Myōhōji Buddhist Order. Fujii was greatly inspired by his meeting with Mahatma Gandhi in 1931 and decided to devote his life to promoting non-violence. In 1947, he began constructing Peace Pagodas as shrines to world peace. The first was inaugurated at Kumamoto in 1954.
South Bank is a cultural, social, educational and recreational precinct in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. The precinct is located in the suburb of South Brisbane, on the southern bank of the Brisbane River.
The bicentenary of Australia was celebrated in 1988. It marked 200 years since the arrival of the First Fleet of British convict ships at Sydney in 1788.
The culture of Brisbane derives from Australian culture and incorporates a strong history in the performing arts, music and sport.
The Seville Expo '92 was a universal exposition that took place from Monday, April 20 to Monday, October 12, 1992, on La Isla de La Cartuja, Seville, Spain. The theme for the expo was "The Age of Discovery", celebrating the 500th anniversary of Christopher Columbus reaching the Americas after launching from Seville's port, and over 100 countries were represented. The total amount of land used for the expo was 215 hectares and the total number of visitors was 41,814,571. The exposition ran at the same time as the smaller and shorter-duration Genoa Expo '92, a Specialized Exhibition, held in memory of Christopher Columbus, born in Genoa.
The Brisbane Botanic Gardens are located 7 kilometres (4.3 mi) from the Brisbane CBD at the foot of Brisbane's tallest mountain, Mount Coot-tha in the suburb of Mount Coot-tha, Queensland, Australia. The gardens receive around 1.4 million visitors a year. Entry to the gardens is free.
The Wheel of Brisbane is an Observation Wheel in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia. It is 60 metres (197 ft) tall.
The Nepal Peace Pagoda in Brisbane, Queensland, Australia, is located at the transformed Brisbane World Expo '88 site, South Bank Parklands. It is one of the most significant heritage items in Brisbane from the hosting of the Expo. It is the only international exhibit remaining on the site.
The 1986 World Exposition on Transportation and Communication, or simply Expo 86, was a World's Fair held in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada from May 2 until October 13, 1986. The fair, the theme of which was "Transportation and Communication: World in Motion – World in Touch", coincided with Vancouver's centennial and was held on the north shore of False Creek.
The Sea World Monorail System was a 2-kilometre (6,600 ft) monorail circuit around the Sea World theme park on the Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia. It was Australia's only remaining monorail system, after the closure of the Sydney Monorail and the other system at Broadbeach, linking the Oasis Shopping Centre with The Star Gold Coast.
References
↑ "About Expo". Celebrate 88. Archived from the original on 30 May 2023. Retrieved 9 February 2024.
↑ McGregor, John. "About World Expo '88". Celebrate 88!. Archived from the original on 24 December 2013. Retrieved 23 February 2008.
1 2 3 4 McBride, Frank; etal. (2009). Brisbane 150 Stories. Brisbane City Council Publication. pp.286–287. ISBN978-1-876091-60-6.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 McKay, Judith (2004). Showing off: Queensland at World Expositions 1862 to 1988. Rockhampton, Queensland: Central Queensland University Press and the Queensland Museum. pp.101–109. ISBN1-876780-37-1.
↑ Carroll, Peter, "The Origins of Expo 88"(PDF), Academic Forum - Celebrate 88!, archived(PDF) from the original on 23 December 2023, retrieved 8 November 2023
↑ "Brisbane Expo 1988". Middle Aged Mama blog. 10 December 2019. Archived from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 24 August 2020.
↑ "Growing Golden Penda". Association of Societies for Growing Australian Plants. Archived from the original on 6 June 2017. Retrieved 5 June 2017.
↑ "Floral Emblem of Cairns City". The Cairns Branch of the Society for Growing Australian Plants (SGAP). Archived from the original on 17 February 2017. Retrieved 6 June 2017.
↑ Council, Cairns Regional (27 May 2016). "City symbols". Cairns Regional Council. Archived from the original on 5 October 2019. Retrieved 30 November 2019.
Victorian International Exhibition of Wine, Fruit, Grain & other products of the soil of Australasia with machinery, plant and tools employed (Melbourne, 1884)
Victorians Jubilee Exhibition (Melbourne, 1885)
Jubilee Juvenile and Industrial Exhibition (Geelong, 1887)
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