Both countries enjoy excellent bilateral ties. There are close linguistic, marital, religious and cultural ties at people-to-people level between Indians and Nepalese.[1][2]
Independent political history
1950–1971
The foundation of relations between India and Nepal was laid with the Indo-Nepalese friendship Treaty in 1950. In the 1950s, the Rana rulers of the Kingdom of Nepal welcomed close relations with the newly independent India, fearing a China-backed communist overthrow of their autocratic regime after the success of Communist revolution in China and establishment of CCP government on October 1, 1949.[citation needed] Rana rule in Nepal however collapsed within three months of signing the 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, to be replaced by the only pro-Indian party of the time – Nepali Congress. As the number of Indians living and working in Nepal's Terai region increased and the involvement of India in Nepal's politics deepened in the 1960s and after, so too did Nepal's discomfort with the special relationship.[citation needed] India's influence over Nepal increased throughout the 1950s. The Nepalese Citizenship Act of 1952 granted Indians the right to immigrate to Nepal and acquire Nepalese citizenship without any difficulty, which caused resentment in Nepal. This policy remained in effect until 1962, when several restrictive clauses were added to the Nepalese constitution.[3] Further, in 1952, an Indian military mission was established in Nepal, which consisted of a Major General and 20 other Indian army personnel, which was later extended to 197 in total.[3] At the same time, Nepal's Royal family's dissatisfaction with India's growing influence began to emerge. As a consequence, overtures to China were initiated by Nepal as a counterweight to India.[3]
Lord Shiva's Pashupatinath Temple in NepalLord Shiva's Kashi Vishwanath Temple in India
The Treaty of Trade and Commerce between the two countries was ratified in October 1950, wherein India acknowledged Nepal's right to import and export commodities through the Indian territories and ports. As per the treaty, customs duties could not be levied on commodities that were in transit through India.[3]
Following the 1962 Sino-Indian border war, the relationship between Nepal and India thawed significantly. India suspended its support to India-based Nepalese opposition forces, opposing the dissolution of democratic government by King Mahendra. The defeat of Indian forces in 1962 in a border war with China, provided Nepal with the much-needed breathing space and Nepal extracted several concessions in trade with India. In exchange, through a secret accord concluded in 1965, similar to an arrangement that had been suspended in 1963, India won a monopoly on arms sales to Nepal.[4]
In 1969, relations between both countries again became stressful as Nepal challenged the existing mutual security arrangement and asked that the Indian security checkposts and liaison group be withdrawn. Resentment also was expressed against the 1950s TPF.[clarification needed] India withdrew its military check-posts and liaison group consisting of 23 military personnel in 1970 from all but Kalapani area of Nepal, although the treaty was not abrogated.[4][5]
Tensions further increased in the mid-1970s, when Nepal pressed for substantial changes in the trade and transit treaty and openly denounced Sikkim's 1975 annexation by India. In 1975 King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev against the backdrop of Indian annexation of Nepal's close neighbor the Kingdom of Sikkim proposed Nepal to be recognized internationally as a 'Zone of Peace' where military competition would be off limits. Nepal's proposal immediately received support from Pakistan and China, but not from India.[3] In New Delhi's view, if the king's proposal did not contradict the 1950 treaty that the-then Indian government had signed with the Rana rulers of Nepal, it was unnecessary; if it was a repudiation of the special relationship, it represented a possible threat to India's security and could not be endorsed. In 1984 Nepal repeated the proposal, but there was no reaction from India. Nepal continually promoted the proposal in international forums and by 1990 it had won the support of 112 countries including the US, the UK, and France.[6]
1970–1990
In 1978 India agreed to separate trade and transit treaties, satisfying a long-term Nepalese demand. However, much to the annoyance of Nepalese Royal Palace and in continued violation of the 1950s PFT, India consistently allowed the opposition parties of Nepal to use Indian soil to launch agitation against the Nepalese government and refused to endorse Nepal as a Zone of Peace.[citation needed] In 1988, when the two treaties were up for renewal, Nepal refused to accommodate India's wishes for a single trade and transit treaty stating that 'it violates the principle of freedom to trade'. Thereafter, both India and Nepal took a hard-line position that led to a serious crisis in bilateral relations. Nepalese leaders asserted the position that as per the UN charter, transit privileges were "a fundamental and a permanent right of a land-locked country" and thus India's demand for a single treaty was unacceptable.[7] After two extensions, the two treaties expired on 23 March 1989, resulting in a virtual Indian economic blockade of Nepal that lasted until late April 1990.[8]
Over the years, Indian economic sanctions over Nepal steadily widened. For example, preferential customs and transit duties on Nepalese goods entering or passing through India (whether imports or exports) were discontinued. Thereafter India let agreements relating to oil processing and warehouse space in Calcutta for goods destined for Nepal expire. Aside from these sanctions, India cancelled all trade credits it had previously extended to Nepal on a routine basis.[3]
To withstand the renewed pressure from India, Nepal undertook a major diplomatic initiative and presented its case on trade and transit matters to the world community.[9]
In 1989, Nepal decoupled its rupee from the Indian rupee which had been circulating in Nepal freely. This further strained the relationship between the two countries. India retaliated by denying port facilities in Calcutta to Nepal, thereby preventing delivery of oil supplies from Singapore and other source countries.[3] In historian Enayetur Rahim's view, "the economic consequences of the dispute... were enormous. Nepal's GDP growth rate plummeted from 9.7% in 1988 to 1.5% in 1989.[9] This had a lot to do with the decreased availability of goods. Shortly after the imposition of sanctions, Nepal experienced serious deficiencies of important goods such as coal, fuel, oil, medicine and spare parts.[3] Nepal also suffered economically from higher tariffs, the closure of border points and the tense political atmosphere. From one of the most thriving economies in Asia, Nepal was now quickly finding itself in the league of World's poorest nation." Although economic issues were a major factor in the two countries' confrontation, Indian dissatisfaction with Nepal's decision to impose work permits over Indians living in Nepal and Nepal government's attempt to acquire Chinese weaponry in 1988 played an important role.[8] India linked security with economic relations and insisted on reviewing India–Nepal relations as a whole. After failing to receive support from wider international community, Nepalese government backed down from its position to avoid the worsening economic conditions. Indian government, with the help of Nepalese opposition parties operating from India, managed to bring a change in Nepal's political system, in which the king was forced to institute a parliamentary democracy. The new government, led by pro-India parties, sought quick restoration of amicable relations with India.
The special security relationship between New Delhi and Kathmandu was re-established during the June 1990 New Delhi meeting of Nepal's prime minister Krishna Prasad Bhatarai and Indian prime minister V.P. Singh, after India ended its 13-month-long economic blockade of Nepal. During the December 1991 visit to India by Nepalese prime minister Girija Prasad Koirala, the two countries signed new, separate trade and transit treaties and other economic agreements designed to accord Nepal additional economic benefits.
Indian-Nepali relations appeared to be undergoing still more reassessment when Nepal's prime minister Man Mohan Adhikary visited New Delhi in April 1995 and insisted on a major review of the 1950 peace and friendship treaty which Nepal believed was enabling an ongoing demographic shift in Nepal's Terai region.[10] In the face of benign statements by his Indian hosts relating to the treaty, Adhikary sought greater economic independence for his landlocked nation while simultaneously striving to improve ties with China.
In June 1990, a joint Kathmandu-New Delhi communique was issued pending the finalisation of a comprehensive arrangement covering all aspects of bilateral relations, restoring trade relations, reopening transit routes for Nepal's imports, and formalising respect of each other's security concerns.[11]
The communiqué announced the restoration of the status quo ante along with the reopening of all border points. Nepal agreed to various concessions regarding India's commercial privileges. Kathmandu announced that it factored in the lower cost while purchasing arms and personnel carriers from China. Nepal was advising China to withhold delivery of the last shipment. As per the declaration made by the communiqué, both countries would cooperate in the industrial development and waters coming from their common rivers would be harnessed for mutual benefit for both the countries, while also protecting and managing the environment.[3]
2000s
In 2005, after King Gyanendra took over, Nepalese relations with India soured. However, even after the restoration of democracy, in 2008, Prachanda, the Prime Minister of Nepal, visited India, in September 2008 only after visiting China, breaking the long-held tradition of Nepalese PM making India as their first port-of-call. When in India, he spoke about a new dawn, in the bilateral relations, between the two countries. He said, "I am going back to Nepal as a satisfied person. I will tell Nepali citizens back home that a new era has dawned. Time has come to effect a revolutionary change in bilateral relations. On behalf of the new government, I assure you that we are committed to make a fresh start."
In 2006, the newly formed democratic parliament of Nepal passed the controversial citizenship bill[12] that led to distribution of Nepalese citizenship to nearly 4 million stateless immigrants in Nepal's Terai by virtue of naturalisation.[13] While the Indian government welcomed the reformed citizenship law, certain section of Nepalese people expressed deep concerns regarding the new citizenship act and feared that the new citizenship law might be a threat to Nepalese sovereignty. The citizenship bill passed by the Nepalese parliament in 2006 was the same bill that was rejected by King Birendra in 2000[14] before he along with his entire family was massacred and upon which Indian government had then formally expressed sorrow.
In 2008, Indo-Nepal ties got a further boost with an agreement to resume water talks after a 4-year hiatus.[15][16] The Nepalese Water Resources Secretary Shanker Prasad Koirala said the Nepal-India Joint Committee on Water Resources meet decided to start the reconstruction of the breached Koshi embankment after the water level went down.[17] During the Nepal Prime Minister's visit to New Delhi in September, the Prime Ministers of both the countries expressed satisfaction at the age-old close, cordial and extensive relationships between their states and expressed their support and co-operation to further consolidate the relationship.
The two issued a 22-point statement highlighting the need to review, adjust and update the 1950 Treaty of Peace and Friendship, amongst other agreements. India would also provide a credit line of up to $15 million to Nepal to ensure uninterrupted supplies of petroleum products, as well as lift bans on the export of rice, wheat, maize, sugar and sucrose for quantities agreed to with Nepal. India would also provide $2 million as immediate flood relief. In return, Nepal will take measures for the promotion of investor friendly, enabling business environment to encourage Indian investments in Nepal.
In 2010 India extended a line of credit worth US$50 million and 80,000 tonnes of food grains. Furthermore, a three-tier mechanism at the level of ministerial, secretary and technical levels will be built to push forward discussions on the development of water resources between the two sides.[18] Politically, India acknowledged a willingness to promote efforts towards peace in Nepal. Indian External affairs minister Pranab Mukherjee promised the Nepali Prime MinisterPrachanda that he would "extend all possible help for peace and development."[19] In 2014, the Indian embassy in Kathmandu started an open house service which would hear grievances faced by the Indian nationals living in Nepal.[10]
However, in recent years, the increasing dominance of Maoism in Nepal's domestic politics,[20] along with the strengthening economic and political influence of the People's Republic of China[21][22][23] has caused the Nepalese government to gradually distance its ties with India, though Nepal still does support India at the UN. Prime Minister of IndiaNarendra Modi visited Nepal in August 2014, marking the first official visit by an Indian prime minister in 17 years. During his visit, the Indian government agreed to provide Nepal with US$1 billion as concessional line of credit for various development purposes and a HIT formula, but he insisted that Indian immigrants in Nepal do not pose a threat to Nepal's sovereignty and therefore open border between Nepal and India should be a bridge and not a barrier.[24][25] Nepal and India signed an agreement on 25 November 2014 as per which India will build a 900 MW hydropower plant at a cost of another US$1 billion.[26] An amount of US$250 million has been granted to Nepal as a part of the agreements signed on 22 February 2016 for post-earthquake reconstruction.[27]
A perpetual issue for many people of Nepali origin, the birthplace of Gautama Buddha has long been a cultural and social issue devoid from the political landscape of both Nepal and India.[28] However, since the souring of relations between the two countries, the issue has been used to undermine relations between the two countries both politically and socially. The two-day-long International Buddhist conference in Kathmandu which ran from 19 to 20 May 2016 marked Vesak and the 2,560th birthday of the Buddha was also used to promote the Buddha's birthplace which lies in modern-day Nepal.[29] The decision of the Nepal Culture Ministry to change the theme, "Preservation and Development of Buddhist Heritage of Nepal" with the sub-theme "Lumbini – Birthplace of Buddha" under the name "Lumbini – Fountainhead of Buddhism" was met with criticism from India which subsequently boycotted the conference due to this and on the back of China's supposed monetary involvement in the conference.[30] Nepali Prime Minister, K.P. Oli told the media that the conference, "should help us make clear to the world that Buddha was born in Nepal and that Buddhist philosophy is the product of Nepal".[31]
In early March 2017, the fatal shooting of a Nepali man who was protesting Indian-occupation on disputed territory between India and Nepal sparked protests in the capital Kathmandu. Indian troops had previously prevented a group of Nepalese farmers living along the border from completing a culvert in the disputed area which ultimately led to protests. It was considered rare for India to retaliate with gunfire.[32]
Treaty
The 1950 treaty and letters exchanged between the then Indian government and Rana rulers of Nepal, stated that "neither government shall tolerate any threat to the security of the other by a foreign aggressor" and obligated both sides "to inform each other of any serious friction or misunderstanding with any neighboring state likely to cause any breach in the friendly relations subsisting between the two governments." These accords cemented a "special relationship" between India and Nepal. The treaty also granted citizens of Nepal, the same economic and educational opportunities as Indian citizens in India, while accounting for preferential treatment to Indian citizens and businesses compared to other nationalities in Nepal. The Indo-Nepal border is open; Nepalese and Indian nationals may move freely across the border without passports or visas and may live and work in either country. However, Indians are not allowed to own land-properties or work in government institutions in Nepal, while Nepalese nationals in India are allowed to work in some Indian government institutions (except in some states and some civil services (the IFS, IAS, and IPS))[33] notably the Indian military.[34] The Election commission of Nepal has published a figure of 562,456 Nepali citizens in India as of 2021, eligible to vote in the upcoming Federal elections of 2022 in Nepal.[35] The number of Indian immigrants in Nepal who haven't registered their paperwork with the Indian embassy in Kathmandu isn't known as of 2021, while Indian embassy in Kathmandu published a figured of 600,000 Indian citizens as currently residing in Nepal.[36][37]
After years of dissatisfaction by the Nepalese government, India in 2014, agreed to reviseand adjustthe 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship to reflect the current realities.[38] However, the modality of adjustment hasn't been made clear by either side. The Nepali side is reported to have submitted an EPG report to the PM of Nepal while the Indian foreign ministry hasn't made any announcements in regards to the submission of the same EPG report to the Indian PM.[39]
Infrastructural and financial support
Since the early 1950s, India has made a considerable contribution to Nepal's socioeconomic development. Along with crucial social sector areas like health, education, and human resource development, other areas of relations include infrastructure like airports, irrigation, agriculture, roads, bridges, power projects, industrial estates, communication, surveys, forestry, and building construction.[40]
In 1951, Nepal and India began working together to build a modern infrastructure, and as Nepal's major development partner, India built Kathmandu's Gauchar Airport, also known as Tribhuvan International Airport which was completed in 1954. In the same year the Indian Aid Mission in Nepal was also set up for developing projects in a number of areas including health, connectivity, education, power, and government departments. In 1976, India assisted Nepal in the construction of the 21 MW Trishuli Hydropower Station with a grant of Rs 140 million. In 2014, the Nepal Bharat Maitri Emergency & Trauma Centre in Kathmandu at a cost of Rs 100 crore, and a new college block of B.P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences, Dharan at a cost of Rs 125 crore were inaugurated. In 2019, the Motihari-Amlekhgunj Petroleum Pipeline was installed at a cost of Rs 324 crore.[41][42]
After the April 2015 Nepal earthquake, the Government of India committed US$1 billion for post-earthquake reconstruction projects in Nepal. The reconstruction of 50,000 houses at a cost of US$100 million was completed in November 2021. Other projects include construction of 132 health facilities across 10 districts and the reconstruction of 71 educational institutes in 8 districts. Also, 28 cultural heritage projects in 7 districts are in the process of being restored.[41]
During the coronavirus crisis, India sent 10 lakh (1 million) doses of vaccines to Nepal as a grant within a week of the roll-out in India.[43] Under India's Vaccine Maitri initiative, it provided nearly 95 lakh (9.5 million) doses of vaccines to Nepal.[44]
Military ties
Nepal and India have long-standing military ties and since 1950 have a custom of awarding the honorary rank of General to each other's Army Chiefs. India has been giving training and equipment to aid the Nepali Army (NA) in modernising. Other facets of India's defence cooperation with Nepal include assistance during disasters, joint military exercises, adventure activities, and bilateral visits. Many Nepal Army personnel attend training courses at various Indian Army training facilities. The Indian Army's Gorkha battalions are raised in part through recruiting in the Nepalese hill districts. Presently, the Indian Army employs roughly 32,000 Gorkha soldiers from Nepal.[45]
The territorial disputes of India and Nepal include Kalapani 400km2 at India-Nepal-China tri-junction in Western Nepal and Susta 140km2 in Southern Nepal. Nepal claims that the river to the west of Kalapani is the main Kali river; hence the area should belong to Nepal.[46][47] But India claims that the river to the west of Kalapani is not the main Kali river, and owing to this new Indian claim, Indian government led by Narendra Modi, for the first time removed the full delineation of Kali river from official Indian map in the newly released map of India in 2018. The river borders the Nepalese province of Sudurpashchim and the Indian state of Uttarakhand. The Sugauli Treaty signed by Nepal and British India on 4 March 1816[48] locates the Kali River as Nepal's western boundary with India. Subsequent maps drawn by British surveyors show the source of the boundary river at different places. This discrepancy in locating the source of the river led to boundary disputes between India and Nepal, with each country producing maps supporting their own claims. The Kali River runs through an area that includes a disputed area of about 400km2 around the source of the river although the exact size of the disputed area varies from source to source. The dispute intensified in 1997 as the Nepali parliament considered a treaty on hydro-electric development of the river. India and Nepal differ as to which stream constitutes the source of the river. Nepal has reportedly tabled an 1856 map from the British India Office to support its position.[48] Kalapani has been controlled by India's Indo-Tibetan border security forces since the Sino-Indian War with China in 1962. In 2015, the Nepalese parliament objected an agreement between India and China to trade through Lipulekh Pass, a mountainous pass in the disputed Kalapani area, stating that the agreement between India and China to trade through Kalapani violates Nepal's sovereign rights over the territory.[49] Nepal has called for the withdrawal of the Indian border forces from Kalapani area.[46]
As the first step for demarcating Indo-Nepal border, survey teams from both countries located and identified missing pillars along the border, and, an agreement was reached to construct new pillars in some places. India and Nepal share more than 1,770-kilometer border.[50] According to the Nepalese government estimates, of the 8000 boundary pillars along the border, 1,240 pillars are missing, 2,500 require restoration, and, 400 more need to be constructed.[51] The survey teams conducted survey of the border pillars based on the strip maps prepared by the Joint Technical Level Nepal-India Boundary Committee (JTLNIBC). The JTLNIBC was set up in 1981 to demarcate the India-Nepal border and after years of surveying, deliberations and extensions, the committee had delineated 98 per cent of the India-Nepal boundary, excluding Kalapani and Susta, on 182 strip maps which was finally submitted in 2007 for ratification by both the countries. Unfortunately neither country ratified the maps. Nepal maintained that it cannot ratify the maps without the resolution of outstanding boundary disputes, i.e. Kalapani and Susta. India, on the other hand, awaited Nepal's ratification while at the same time urging it to endorse the maps as a confidence building measure for solving the Kalapani and Susta disputes. In absence of a ratification, the process of completely demarcating the India-Nepal boundary could not be undertaken and completed.[51]
In 2020, the relation between the two countries came under strain after the inauguration of a 80km long road which connected the Lipulekh pass with Dharchula in Uttarakhand. The strategically crucial road was inaugurated by India's Defence Minister, Rajnath Singh on 8 May 2020. Nepal reacted to this inauguration and claimed that the road passed through Nepalese territory. India later rejected Nepal's claim and stated that the road was within the Indian territory.[52]
In 2014, to enhance the collaborative relations between the two nations, Nepal and India started a Trans-border bus service from New Delhi to Kathmandu connecting the nation's capital of both countries. The direct bus service with multiple routes improves connectivity between the capitals of both countries.[56][57] The service is in operation by Delhi Bus Corporation (DTC), India and several other private Travel companies. At present (2019), Kathmandu to Delhi bus service, Kathmandu to Siliguri Bus service, Kathmandu to Varanasi, Delhi to Janakpur bus service are in operation.[58]
According to an official statement issued by the Ministry of Railways, from February 2023, Indian Railways will run its Bharat Gaurav Tourist Train on a route which will connect pilgrimage sites of Ayodhya in India and Janakpur in Nepal.[59][60] The train service will connect the two most significant pilgrimage sites of both the nations. This initiative aims at strengthening the bilateral ties between the two countries while also boosting religious tourism.[61]
Trade
PM Modi meeting the PM of Nepal, Mr. Sher Bahadur Deuba, at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on April 02, 2022.
India is Nepal's largest trade partner and the largest source of total foreign investments (China has been the largest source of FDI in Nepal from 2015 onward), besides providing transit for almost entire third country trade of Nepal in accordance with Indo-Nepal Transit treaty.[62][63] India accounts for over two-thirds of Nepal's merchandise trade, about one-third of trade in services, one-third of foreign direct investments, almost 100% of petroleum supplies, and a significant share of inward remittances on account of pensioners, professionals and workers working in India, with nearly $1.2 billion per year remitted by Nepalese citizens in India back to Nepal. India accounts for 30% FDI into Nepal, which makes it one of the primary investors for Nepal.[64][65]
Nepal is the 9th largest trading partner of India. Nepal is also the 7th largest source of remittance to India, with $3.2 billion a year remitted from Nepal to India per the World Bank.
In the year 2017–2018, Nepal's total trade with India was about US$8.2 billion;[66] Nepal's exports to India were US$446.5 million; while imports from India were upwards of US$7.7 billion. In percentage terms, Nepal's trade deficit with India is approximately 1724%.[67]
Nepal's main imports from India are petroleum products (28.6%),[68] motor vehicles and spare parts (7.8%), M. S. billet (7%), medicines (3.7%), other machinery and spares (3.4%), coldrolled sheet in coil (3.1%), electrical equipment (2.7%), hotrolled sheet in coil (2%), M. S. wires, rods, coils and bars (1.9%), cement (1.5%), agriculture equipment and parts (1.2%), chemical fertilizer (1.1%), chemicals (1.1%) and thread (1%). Nepal's export basket to India mainly comprises jute goods (9.2%), zinc sheet (8.9%), textiles (8.6%), threads (7.7%), polyester yarn (6%), juice (5.4%), catechue (4.4%), Cardamom (4.4%), wire (3.7%), tooth paste (2.2%) and M. S. Pipe (2.1%).[67]
Based on the high quantity of petroleum import from India, the countries are in talks for setting up new additional pipelines.[69]
In 2020, Nepal incurred the highest trade deficit with India amounting to US$6.1 billion.[70]
In 2022, Nepal exported electricity worth Rs10.38 billion to India till mid-November 2022.[71] In the recent years, electricity is one of Nepal's largest exports to India. In November 2021, India allowed Nepal for the first time to sell electricity in the Indian market through a bidding process.[72][73] Nepal has been authorized to sell over 400MW of electricity to India.[74][75]
Human trafficking
Human trafficking in Nepal is a serious concern. An estimated 100,000–200,000 Nepalese in India are believed to have been trafficked.[76][77] Sex trafficking is particularly rampant within Nepal and to India, with as many as 5,000–10,000 women and girls trafficked to India alone each year.[76] The seriousness of trafficking of Nepalese girls to India was highlighted by CNN Freedom Project's documentary: Nepal's Stolen Children.[78]Maiti Nepal has rescued more than 12,000 stolen Nepalese children from sex trafficking since 1993.[78]
In 2015, Nepal promulgated its new Constitution but the Madheshis, some Janajatis and some Tharus, felt they were marginalized and being left out in the new constitution. These groups, the Madheshis in particular, then organized small scale protests and blockaded a portion of border India-Nepal border near Biratnagar area in September 2015, shortly after the devastating earthquake which had mainly affected people of Hilly regions of Nepal.
The Nepalese government accused India of deliberately blockading the entirety of the border by not allowing vehicles to pass from checkpoints where no protests were held (like borders along Sikkim, Gorkhaland, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh) questioning how the blockade of the long border was even possible given the strong kingship between Hill Nepalese people, Gorkhas of Gorkhaland, and Nepali-speaking citizens of Sikkim. Indian government, however, denied all allegations of any involvement in the blockade and also warned Nepal not to play with the emotions of Nepali-speaking Sikkimese, and not to call Sikkimese people 'oppressed people'.[79]
India, officially the Republic of India, has full diplomatic relations with 201 states, including Palestine, the Holy See, and Niue. The Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) is the government agency responsible for the conduct of foreign relations of India. With the world's third largest military expenditure, second largest armed force, fifth largest economy by GDP nominal rates and third largest economy in terms of purchasing power parity, India is a prominent regional power and a rising superpower.
Though the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) is the government agency which is responsible for conducting the foreign relations of Nepal, historically, it is the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO) which has exercised the authority to formulate the country's foreign policies. As a landlocked country wedged between two larger and far stronger powers, Nepal has tried to maintain good relations with both of its neighbors, People's Republic of China and Republic of India. However, the relationship between Nepal and India was significantly hampered by the 2015 Nepal blockade when the Government of Nepal accused India of mimicking "Russia-Ukraine" tactics by using ethnically Indian residents of Nepal to cause unrest along Nepal's southern border. India denied the allegation and said the unrest were an internal affair. For the most part though, Nepal has traditionally maintained a non-aligned policy and enjoys friendly relations with its neighboring countries and almost all the major countries of the world.
Bhutan has diplomatic relations with 54 of 193 member states of the United Nations and the European Union. Bhutan's limited number of such relations, including the absence of formal relations with any of the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council, is part of a deliberate isolationist policy of limiting foreign influence in the state. This stance has been safeguarded by close relations with India, of which Bhutan has previously been considered a protected state.
The Treaty of Sugauli, the treaty that established the boundary line of Nepal, was signed on 4 March 1816 between the East India Company and Guru Gajraj Mishra following the Anglo-Nepalese War of 1814–16.
Bangladesh–India relations are the bilateral relations between the People's Republic of Bangladesh and the Republic of India, both of which are South Asian neighbours. Diplomatic relations between the two countries formally began in 1971 with India's recognition of an independent Bangladesh following India's military intervention helping Bangladesh secure independence following the Bangladesh Liberation War. On 6 December, Bangladesh and India celebrate Friendship Day commemorating India's recognition of Bangladesh and the continued friendship between the two countries.
The 1950 India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship is a bilateral treaty signed by the Kingdom of Nepal and the Republic of India to establish a close strategic relationship between the two South Asian neighbours. The treaty was signed in Kathmandu on 31 July 1950 by the last Rana Prime Minister of Nepal Mohan Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana and Indian ambassador to Nepal, Chadreshwar Narayan Singh and came into force the same day as per Article 9 of the Treaty. Rana rule in Nepal ended just 3 months after the treaty was signed. The treaty allows free movement of people and goods between the two nations and a close relationship and collaboration on matters of defence and foreign policy.
The bilateral relations between Nepal and China are defined by the Sino-Nepalese Treaty of Peace and Friendship signed on April 28, 1960, by the two countries. Though initially unenthusiastic, Nepal has been of late making efforts to increase trade and connectivity with China. Relations between Nepal and China got a boost when both countries solved all border disputes along the China–Nepal border by signing the Sino-Nepal boundary agreement on March 21, 1960, making Nepal the first neighboring country of China to conclude a border treaty with China. The governments of both Nepal and China ratified the border treaty on October 5, 1961. From 1975 onward, Nepal has maintained a policy of balancing the competing influence of China and Nepal's southern neighbor India, the only two neighbors of the Himalayan country after the accession of the Kingdom of Sikkim into India in 1975.
Nepal–Pakistan relations refer to the bilateral relations between Nepal and Pakistan, both Himalayan states located in the Indian subcontinent. After the Partition of British India in August 1947, Nepal moved to establish diplomatic relations with the Dominion of India, but did not do so with the Dominion of Pakistan. Official diplomatic ties did not exist between the two states until initial steps were taken on 29 March 1960; these relations were then fully established in 1962 and 1963. Both nations have since sought to expand their bilateral trade, strategic and military cooperation. In 1972, following Pakistan's defeat in the Bangladesh Liberation War and the secession of East Pakistan as the People's Republic of Bangladesh, Nepal recognized the latter's independence. Pakistan severed ties with Nepal shortly afterwards, but these were later re-established.
The bilateral relations between Bangladesh and Nepal have been progressive since the foundation of Bangladesh in 1971. The two nations are separated by the "Siliguri Corridor" - a 22 kilometres (14 mi) wide stretch of territory of the Indian state of West Bengal that lies between southern Nepal and northern Bangladesh. Both South Asian nations are members of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), the Bay of Bengal Initiative for MultiSectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC), and the United Nations (UN).
The Kalapani territory is an area under Indian administration as part of Pithoragarh district in the Kumaon Division of the Uttarakhand state, but it is also claimed by Nepal since 1997. According to Nepal's claim, it lies in Darchula district, Sudurpashchim Province. The territory represents part of the basin of the Kalapani river, one of the headwaters of the Kali River in the Himalayas at an altitude of 3600–5200 meters. The valley of Kalapani, with the Lipulekh Pass at the top, forms the Indian route to Kailash–Manasarovar, an ancient pilgrimage site. It is also the traditional trading route to Tibet for the Bhotiyas of Kumaon and the Tinkar valley of Nepal.
There are several disputed territories of India. A territorial dispute is a disagreement over the possession or control of land between two or more states or over the possession or control of land by a new state and occupying power after it has conquered the land from a former state no longer currently recognized by the new state.
The most significant initiative made by the Narendra Modi government is the focus on neighbouring countries and major Asian powers coupled with emphasizing on the two decades old Look East policy. Asia being the major focus area of his foreign policy, Modi and his foreign minister chose several Asian countries for their initial bilateral visits. He has made state visits to Bhutan and Nepal and Japan within the first 100 days of his government and also hosted Asian leaders like former Prime Minister Tony Abbott of Australia, President Xi Jinping of China and Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng of Vietnam, apart from inviting SAARC leaders in his inauguration ceremony. External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj has also made official visits to several Asian capitals like Dhaka, Bangladesh, Kathmandu, Nepal, Naypidaw, Myanmar, Singapore, Hanoi, Vietnam, Manama, Bahrain, Kabul, Afghanistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan, Malé, Maldives, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates, Seoul, South Korea and Beijing China.
Neighbourhood First Policy of India is a core component of India's foreign policy. It focuses on peaceful relations and collaborative synergetic co-development with its South Asian neighbours of the Indian subcontinent encompassing a diverse range of topics, such as economics, technology, research, education, connectivity, space program, defence security, environment and climate challenge. This policy creates new avenues as well as leverages to the existing regional cooperation initiatives such as SAARC, SASEC, BBIN, and BIMSTEC. It compliments India's Look East policy focused on Southeast Asia and Look West Policy focused on Middle East.
The China–Nepal border is the international boundary between the Tibet Autonomous Region of the People's Republic of China and Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal. It is 1,389 kilometres (863 mi) in length and runs in a northwest–southeast direction along the Himalayan mountain range, including Mount Everest, the world's highest mountain. The boundaries of this particular border have changed dramatically over time, especially when considering relatively recent events such as the Annexation of Tibet in 1949. However, some of the most significant developments of modern times would be the signing of the "Agreement on Maintaining Friendly Relations between the People’s Republic of China and the Kingdom of Nepal" in 1956 and the "Sino-Nepalese Treaty of Peace and Friendship" in 1960, both of which formally recognised Tibet as a part of China and confirmed the limits of the countries of China and Nepal as they are known today.
The 2015 India Blockade of Nepal, which began on 23 September 2015 and lasted about six months, was an economic and humanitarian crisis that severely affected Nepal and its economy.
Eastern South Asia is a geographical area in South Asia. It includes the countries of Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and Nepal. Geographically, it lies between the Eastern Himalayas and the Bay of Bengal. Two of the world's largest rivers, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra, flow into the sea through the Bengal region. The region includes the world's highest mountainous terrain, the Himalayas, and the world's largest delta, the Ganges Delta, and has a climate ranging from alpine and subalpine to subtropical and tropical. Since Nepal, Bhutan, Northeast India and parts of East India are landlocked, the coastlines of Bangladesh and East India serve as the principal gateways to the region.
The India–Nepal border is an open international boundary running between the republics of India and Nepal. The 1,751 km (1,088.02 mi) long border includes the Himalayan territories as well as Indo-Gangetic Plain of the subcontinent. The current border was delimited after the Sugauli treaty of 1816 between Nepal and the British Raj. Following Indian independence, the prevailing border was recognised as the international border between the Kingdom of Nepal and the Dominion of India.
Tinkar is a village in the Byans Rural Municipality of Darchula District in the Sudurpashchim province of Nepal. It is named after the Tinkar Khola river, a tributary of the Mahakali River, which it joins near the village of Chhangru.
The Sino-Nepalese Treaty of Peace and Friendship was an official settlement between the governments of Nepal and China signed on 28 April 1960, which ratified an earlier agreement on the borders separating the neighboring nations from each other. Gerry Van Tronder has argued that this document fitted into an attempt to maintain the image that Beijing was a "powerful but essentially benevolent leader in Asia", following the 1959 Tibetan Uprising. Contemporary Nepali, Chinese and Indian commentators have stressed the importance of the treaty in determining Nepal's relationship with China in the past and present.
Nepal–Turkey relations are the foreign relations between Nepal and Turkey. Bilateral diplomatic relations were established in 1962. The Turkish ambassador to India in New Delhi is accredited to Nepal and the Embassy of Nepal in Islamabad is accredited to Turkey.
↑ Karun Kishor Karki, and K. C. Hari. "Nepal-India relations: beyond realist and liberal theoretical prisms." Journal of International Affairs 3.1 (2020): 84–102
↑ Maxwell, Daniel M (28 October 2012). "Exchanging Power: Prospects of Nepal-India Co-operation for Hydropower Development". SSRN. SSRN2193796.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
↑ "Talks only way to resolve Kalapani issue: Nepal FM". The Economic Times. Retrieved 4 November 2022. The ties between the two countries came under strain after Defence Minister Rajnath Singh inaugurated a 80-KM-long strategically crucial road connecting the Lipulekh pass with Dharchula in Uttarakhand on May 8
↑ "Embassy of India, Kathmandu, Nepal: Commerce Wing Brief". www.indembkathmandu.gov.in. India is Nepal's largest trade partner and the largest source of foreign investments, besides providing transit for almost entire third country trade of Nepal.
↑ Studies, Institute of South Asian (6 May 2020). "Indo-Nepal Dynamics Vis-A-Vis China – Analysis". Eurasia Review. Retrieved 21 November 2022. At present, India remains its largest trading partner; total bilateral trade between the two South Asian neighbours stands at US$8.2 billion (S$11.6 billion). India accounts for 30 per cent of the total foreign direct investment (FDI) into Nepal, making it one of the primary investors in the country.
↑ Samachar Samiti, Rastriya. "NEA three month's profit surpasses Rs 8 billion". thehimalayantimes.com. Retrieved 1 December 2022. Its income from the power trade to India in the first three months was Rs 6.17 billion.
Bhattarai, Keshav, and Madhukar Pandey. "Disputed Territories between Nepal and India: The Cases of Kalapani, Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh and Susta." The Mega Journal.online
Heitzman, James; Worden, Robert L., eds. (1995), "Foreign Policy: Nepal", India: A Country Study, GPO for the Library of Congress, retrieved 6 October 2007
Karki, Karun Kishor, and K. C. Hari. "Nepal-India relations: beyond realist and liberal theoretical prisms." Journal of International Affairs 3.1 (2020): 84–102. online
Malone, David M., C. Raja Mohan, and Srinath Raghavan, eds. The Oxford handbook of Indian foreign policy (2015)excerpt pp 398–411.
Sanjay Upadhya (2021). Backfire in Nepal: How India Lost The Plot to China. Vitasta Publishing
Shukla, Deeptima. "India-Nepal relations: Problems and prospects." The Indian Journal of Political Science (2006): 355–374. online
Tripathi, Dhananjay. "Influence of Borders on Bilateral Ties in South Asia: A Study of Contemporary India–Nepal Relations." International Studies 56.2-3 (2019): 186–200.
Tripathi, Dhananjay. "What happened to India-Nepal Relations?." CSSAME (2020) online
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