International sanctions against Syria are a series of economic sanctions and restrictions imposed by the European Union, the United States, Canada, Australia, and Switzerland, mainly as a result of the repression of civilians in the Syrian civil war from 2011 onwards. The US sanctions against Syria are the most severe, as they affect third-parties as well, and amount to an embargo.[1] U.S. secondary sanctions were limited until 2020 when the Caesar Act entered into force.[2] The intent is to prevent the Syrian government from employing violence against its citizens and to motivate political reforms that could solve the root causes of the conflict.[3]
According to statista.com, Syria is the world's third most sanctioned country in the world as of March 2022.[4]
A number of humanitarian aid exemptions have been embedded within the sanctions mechanisms to allow approved humanitarian aid to civilians living in Syria; nonetheless, many humanitarian aid efforts towards Syria have been blocked due to the effects of sanctions.[5][6][7]
There were increasing calls for sanctions against Syria to be lifted after the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes due to its impact on humanitarian aid. The U.S later temporarily lifted some sanctions which allowed many charity organizations to send money to Syria.
In November 1986, the European Community (EC) imposed a package of sanctions that included a ban on the sale of new arms to Syria, a ban on high-level visits, review of embassy and consular staff, and strict security measures with regard to Syrian Arab Airlines. These measures were lifted in 1994.[9]
Between March and August 2004, the United States issued new sanctions against the Syrian government.[10] These new sanctions are a follow-up to the policy of combating the Axis of evil conducted by the Bush administration, which "condemns the alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction by the Syrian regime, condemns its grip on Lebanon and its willingness to destabilize Iraq, as well as its support for liberation forces organizations such as Hezbollah and Hamas."[11][12]
The first sanctions applied on the country after the outbreak of the crisis was on 29 April 2011, after an executive order was issued by President Barack Obama to block property of those involved in the violations.[13] Canada imposed its first sanctions on 25 May 2011 in the form of a travel ban, asset freeze, ban on the export of certain goods and technology that may be used by the armed forces, and suspension of all bilateral agreements and initiatives.[14]
In May 2011, the European Union adopted sanctions against Syria, in particular by prohibiting the trade in goods that could be used for the repression of the civilian population.
Sanctions following the civil war
In August 2011, the United States put in place an embargo on the oil sector,[15] freezing the financial assets of a number of personalities, as well as those of the Syrian state itself. In addition, the United States prohibits the export of goods and services originating in the territory of the United States or from United States companies or persons to Syria. This prohibition concerns any product of which at least 10% of the value comes from the United States or one of its nationals.[16] This measure has a wide impact on the Syrian population and on the price of commodities and medical products.
In September 2011, the European Union, in turn, adopted an embargo against the Syrian oil sector.[17][bettersourceneeded]
In November 2011, the Arab League announced in turn the freezing of Syrian government's financial assets, the end of financial exchanges with the Central Bank of Syria, the cessation of airlines between the countries of the Arab League and Syria, the ban on the stay of several Syrian figures and the cessation of investments in Syria by the Arab League states.[19][20]Lebanon and Yemen have opposed these sanctions.[21] In the same month, Turkey also announced the freezing of the Syrian state's financial assets.[22]
Other sanctions measures were put in place by the European Union in February 2012 concerning the energy sector, the supply of arms and the financial sector of Syria,[23][bettersourceneeded] as well as the mining sector. US presidential orders 13606 and 13608 issued in April and May 2012, respectively, issued additional sanctions against foreign individuals and firms trying to evade the US sanctions.[16] In June 2012, several non-EU countries like Georgia, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Iceland, Serbia, Albania, Liechtenstein, Norway and Moldova also joined the European Union's sanctions against Syria.[24]
In addition, in 2012, 120 Syrian officials or institutions had their financial assets frozen by the European Union and cannot travel to the European Union. This includes Bashar al-Assad, the Central Bank of Syria and several ministers. In June 2012, the European Union banned the trade in luxury goods with Syria, as well as a number of commercial products.[25] At the same time, the European Union strengthened its measures of restrictions on Syria in the fields of armaments, law enforcement and telecommunications control sectors.[26]
However, several EU member states have received sanctioned Syrian ministers in their lands, under the guise of attending UN and intergovernmental conferences since 2018.[27]
In March 2017, a UN Security Council draft resolution aimed to establish sanctions against Syria following the use of chemical weapons in its territory. However, Russia and China vetoed it. It is the 7th draft resolution for sanctions that have been rejected as a result of the exercise of vetoes. The resolution envisaged prohibiting the trade in helicopter parts and setting up the freezing of financial assets of some military figures from the Syrian government.[28]
In April 2017, the United States imposed financial freeze and travel ban to financial services against 270 government employees of the Syrian government following the Khan Sheikhoun attack.[29]
In March 2021, the EU declared that sanctions would remain in place until a political transformation in Syria commences.[30][bettersourceneeded] On 31 May 2022, the EU extended its sanctions against the Syrian government for a further year.[31] Following Assad's backing of Russian invasion of Ukraine and recognition of the separatist republics of Donetsk and Luhansk, Ukraine dissolved all diplomatic relations with Syria and pledged to expand further sanctions against Syria in June 2022.[32][33]
On 9 February 2023, the US Treasury Department announced it would temporarily lift some sanctions, covering “all transactions related to earthquake relief”, for 180 days. Previously, the US said the sanctions already contained robust exemptions for humanitarian assistance, and they "will not stand in the way" of saving lives.[35][36][37]
On 23 February 2023, the European Union also announced it would ease some sanctions for six months in order to speed up the relief effort for the Syrian nation. Later a number of neighboring Arab states also signaled increased cooperation with Syria after they contributed to the relief effort.[38][39]
During the 2023 Munich security conference, Prince Faisal bin Farhan Al Saud remarked that some dialogue would be necessary with Damascus, at least to address humanitarian issues, including a return of refugees, especially after the 2023 earthquake, and that "not just among the GCC (Gulf Cooperation Council) but in the Arab world there is a consensus growing that the status quo (to isolate Syria) is not workable”.[40] At the same conference, Kuwaiti foreign minister Salem Abdullah Al-Jaber Al-Sabah told Reuters that his country was opposed to normalization with Bashar al-Assad and stated that Kuwait provided financial assistance to earthquake victims through international organisations and Turkey.[41][42]
Following a visit to Syria by Jordan's foreign minister Ayman Safadi on 15 February 2023, members of the Jordanian government also expressed hope that Syria's isolation would end and sanctions could be lifted.[43] A day earlier, China' envoy to the United Nations also called for unilateral sanctions to be lifted "to give children hit by war and quakes hopes for survival".[44]
Qatar has been firmly opposed to normalisation of Bashar al-Assad due to regime's repression and has called for dialogue to end the crisis. Spokesman of Qatari Foreign Ministry stated on 28 February 2023 that they will not normalise relations with Syria until there is a "real political solution" in the country.[45]
On 18 March 2023, National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine put into effect a range of sanctions targeting 141 firms and 300 individuals linked to Syria, including those affiliated with Russian weapons manufacturers and Iranian dronemakers. This was days after Assad's visit to Moscow, wherein he recognized Russian annexation of four Ukrainian Oblasts and portrayed Russia's war as a fight against "old and new Nazis". Bashar al-Assad, Prime Minister Hussein Arnous and Foreign Minister Faisal Mikdad were amongst the individuals who were sanctioned.[lower-alpha 1] Sanctions also involved freezing of all Syrian state properties in Ukraine, curtailment of monetary transactions, termination of economic commitments and recision of all state awards.[51]
In late March 2023, Turkey also had taken the path of easing economic sanctions against Syria, as Erdogan is seeking a "bilateral normalization effort" with his Syrian counterpart Bashar Al-Assad, according to Le Monde. Earlier, US Secretary of State Antony Blinken and Turkish Foreign Minister Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu met in Ankara to seek a solution to the separatist-controlled north of Syria, an issue long at heart for the Turkish republic.[53]
In early April 2023, Saudi Arabia had invited Syria's Assad to the Arab leaders summit. Saudi Foreign Minister Prince Faisal bin Farhan will travel to Damascus to discuss further steps to readmit Syria to the Arab League and reduce economic sanctions. The summit is scheduled for 19 May 2023.[54] At the same time, Egypt was also in advanced talks with Bashar al-Assad when Egyptian Foreign Minister Sameh Shoukry met his Syrian counterpart in Cairo.[55]
On 7 May 2023, Syria was readmitted to the Arab league after a vote in Cairo before the scheduled meeting in Saudi Arabia later that month. Earlier, Kuwait and Qatar had opposed al-Assad's presence at the Arab League summit. The regional normalisation effort had caught the U.S. and its European allies by surprise, as they were opposing an “Arab-led political path” in solving the crisis. According to the statement, al-Assad would be allowed to the meeting on 19 May 2023, if "he wishes to do so". Despite a critical stance by Jordan towards readmission of Syria to the alliance, the new political process was dubbed the “Jordanian Initiative”. Nevertheless, Syria remains under western sanctions after millions of Syrians had been displaced or sought refuge in Jordan and European countries during the civil war. The changes to the relations between Syria and other Arab States would allow many of them to return to their homeland, according to the announcements made earlier by Jordanian and Saudi officials.[56][57]
Sanctioned individuals
This is a partial list of Syrian officials who have been subjected to sanctions, some of them prior to 2011. President Assad was sanctioned for the first time on 18 May 2011.[58]
Sanctions have led to the shortage of medical equipment and medicine in Syria as its illegal for many international pharmaceutical companies to sell medicine to Syria due to sanctions, regardless of sanction exemption measures imposed by the United States and European Union towards medicine due to contradicting sanctions, medicines containing sanctioned chemicals, complex bureaucracy involved in getting approved for a sanction exemption license etc. Due to Syria's reliance on imports for anti-cancer medicine, its cancer treatment hospital capabilities have been heavily hampered.[6] An Italian hospital director in Damascus told Middle East Eye in 2017 that its hospital had been partially financed by donations until sanctions prevented financial transactions to Syrian banks.[7][bettersourceneeded]
Although sanctions do not prevent transfer of funds to registered NGOs working in Syria, sanctions have led to many fund-raising and money transfer companies (such as PayPal, Venmo and GoFundMe) to block or suspend attempts by charities and individuals seeking to send money to both government- and opposition-controlled areas due to sanctions against banks and payment processors.[59][60][61][62] The licensing requirements and complex bureaucracy of sanctions paperwork required for nonprofit organizations seeking to send humanitarian aid to Syria, combined with increasing audits for NGOs working in areas controlled by Islamists, had cost charity organizations millions of dollars by 2016. The bank accounts of many charities, including those working in non-government areas, were blocked or frozen due to banks' over-compliance with sanctions.[63][64][7]
Due to U.S sanctions banning the export, sale or supply of goods, software, technology and services to Syria, people in Syria are barred from accessing Western online platforms used for education, online shopping, work or leisure, such as Google, Netflix, Amazon (company), Zoom (software), Apple Inc. etc.[65]
Financial transaction sanctions made it illegal for video game companies to allow people in Syria to access their platforms. Sanctions in 2019 on services towards Syria and Iran made it illegal for free-to-play video game companies to let people in Syria access their platform, regardless of removing financial transactions within their games for people in Syria in trying to avoid previous sanctions, which forced video game companies to not allow people on their platforms in Iran and Syria.[66][67]
After the 2023 earthquakes, charity fundraising attempts towards supporting family members in government and opposition regions of Syria on the GoFundMe platform were blocked due to sanctions while the platform continued to only allow transfers to pre-approved registered NGOs and suspended other accounts attempting to send money to Syria for fear of non-compliance with U.S sanctions relating to banks and payment processors. After the U.S temporarily lifted certain sanctions, GoFundMe notified suspended charity accounts that they could send donations to Syria on their platform.[59][36]
Sanctions against Syria, even when exempt during natural catastrophes had been criticised by a number of organisations. A report by the Brookings Institution pointed out that EU and U.S. sanctions have led to severe shortages and contributed to the collapse of the Syrian currency. These strict sanction policies actually reduced the influence of Western nations with liberal democratic institutions and increased Syria's ties with nations such as Russia, China, Arab nations and of course Iran. The punitive sanctions had also unintended consequences on the Syrian populations and hindered the development of a middle class in the country that could change the economic course of the Syrian nation. After the U.S. and the EU temporarily lifted some minor sanctions subsequent to the 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquake, and the Middle East further destabilised during the 2023 Israel-Hamas war, an increase of Syrian refugees entering Western Europe via Cyprus was again clearly observed. The Syrian government that controls most of the official territory of Syria also claimed that economic sanctions hinder the return of Syrians to their homeland. Despite the readmission of Syria to the Arab League, the situation in Syria did not improve because regional peace efforts remain subordinate to the massive sanctions the U.S. and European nations impose on Syria. As many nations advocated the departure of the Assad regime, such a development now seems impossible as Arab nations urge a normalisation of ties with the Syrian government, economically and politically.[68][69]
The 2004 sanctions were supported by Israel's Minister of Foreign Affairs Silvan Shalom in a public statement.[12]
More recently, and especially in the 2020s with the normalisation of Syria's international relations, a number of countries, such as China, Iran, Russia, the United Arab Emirates and humanitarian organizations have called for the sanctions to be lifted.[70][71][72]
Hezbollah has criticized sanctions against Syria and accused the U.S of trying to starve Syria. On multiple occasions Hezbollah ignored sanctions and sent both weapons and humanitarian aid to Syria, leading to many of its weapon convoys being bombed by Israel.[73][74][75][76][77][78]
Chinese state media reported that Syria's Foreign Minister Faisal Mekdad said the Syrian nation has been deprived of $107 billion in oil and gas earnings since 2011 due to sanctions and the U.S exporting Syrian crude oil from areas under U.S and U.S ally control.[79][80][unreliable source?]
Critics argue that Bashar al-Assad had weaponized humanitarian relief efforts as a tool to punish people in opposition-held territories, throughout the course of the civil war.[83]Muslim-American civic organization Emgage said that sanctions did not bear impact on humanitarian aid, instead criticizing Russian and Iranian governments for obscuring "Assad's role in destroying the country" and economic mismanagement.[84]
Bashar al-Assad is a Syrian politician who is the current and 19th president of Syria since 17 July 2000. In addition, he is the commander-in-chief of the Syrian Armed Forces and the secretary-general of the Central Command of the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party, which nominally espouses a neo-Ba'athist ideology. His father and predecessor was General Hafiz al-Assad, whose presidency in 1971–2000 marked the transfiguration of Syria from a republican state into a de facto dynastic dictatorship, tightly controlled by an Alawite-dominated elite composed of the armed forces and the Mukhabarat, who are loyal to the al-Assad family.
Major General Maher al-Assad is a Syrian military officer and commander of the Syrian Army's elite 4th Armoured Division, which together with Syria's Military Intelligence form the core of the country's security forces. He is the younger brother of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, and also a member of the Central Committee of the Syrian Ba'ath Party.
Walid Mohi Edine al Muallem was a Syrian diplomat and Ba'ath Party member who served as foreign minister from 2006 to 2020 and as deputy prime minister from 2012 to 2020.
Jordan–Syria relations are bilateral relations between the sovereign states of Jordan and Syria. Relations between neighbours have ancient roots as both countries are historically parts of the Levant or the region of Syria. The two states were created after the First World War from former Ottoman dominions by way of a secret bilateral agreement between Britain and France.
Hezbollah has a Foreign Relations Unit and maintains relations with a number of foreign countries and entities. These are particularly Shia states, but also Sunni groups like those affiliated with the Palestinian cause; and the group is also suggested to have operations outside the Middle East in places such as Latin America and North Korea.
Diplomatic relations between Syria and the United States are currently non-existent; they were suspended in 2012 after the onset of the Syrian Civil War. Priority issues between the two states include the Arab–Israeli conflict, the Golan Heights annexation, Iraq War, alleged state-sponsorship of terrorism, occupation of Lebanon, etc.
Hafez Mohamad Makhlouf, also known as Hafez Makhlouf, is a Syrian brigadier general and intelligence officer who headed the Damascus branch of the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate. He was a member of Syrian president Bashar al-Assad's inner circle of close supporters.
Syria–United Arab Emirates relations refer to the relationship between the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the Syrian Arab Republic. The UAE has an embassy in Damascus and Syria has an embassy in Abu Dhabi and a consulate-general in Dubai. Both countries are members of the Arab League, part of the Middle East region and share close cultural ties.
The Syrian civil war is an ongoing multi-sided conflict in Syria involving various state-sponsored and non-state actors. In March 2011, popular discontent with the rule of Bashar al-Assad triggered large-scale protests and pro-democracy rallies across Syria, as part of the wider Arab Spring protests in the region. After months of crackdown by the government's security apparatus, various armed rebel groups such as the Free Syrian Army began forming across the country, marking the beginning of the Syrian insurgency. By mid-2012, the crisis had escalated into a full-blown civil war.
International reactions to the Syrian civil war ranged from support for the government to calls for the government to dissolve. The Arab League, United Nations and Western governments in 2011 quickly condemned the Syrian government's response to the protests which later evolved into the Syrian civil war as overly heavy-handed and violent. Many Middle Eastern governments initially expressed support for the government and its "security measures", but as the death toll mounted, especially in Hama, they switched to a more balanced approach, criticizing violence from both government and protesters. Russia and China vetoed two attempts at United Nations Security Council sanctions against the Syrian government.
The Axis of Resistance is an informal Iranian-led political and military coalition in West Asia and North Africa.
Foreign involvement in the Syrian civil war refers to political, military and operational support to parties involved in the ongoing conflict in Syria that began in March 2011, as well as active foreign involvement. Most parties involved in the war in Syria receive various types of support from foreign countries and entities based outside Syria. The ongoing conflict in Syria is widely described as a series of overlapping proxy wars between the regional and world powers, primarily between the United States and Russia as well as between Iran and Saudi Arabia.
Saudi Arabia–Syria relations refer to bilateral and economic relations between Saudi Arabia and the Syrian Arab Republic. Diplomatic ties between these two countries of the Middle East have long been strained by the major events in the region. Saudi Arabia has an embassy in Damascus, and Syria has an embassy in Riyadh. Both countries are members of the Arab League and share close cultural ties.
Humanitarian aid during the Syrian civil war has been provided by various international bodies, organizations and states. The main effort is coordinated by Jonh Ging of the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UNOCHA). In 2014, U.N. Security Council Resolution 2165 authorised humanitarian aid to be supplied via four border crossings not controlled by the Syrian government, generally to supply rebel-controlled territory.
The Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition, also referred to as 4+1, is a joint intelligence-sharing cooperation between opponents of the Islamic State (IS) with operation rooms in Syria's Damascus and Iraq's Green Zone in Baghdad. It was formed as a consequence of an agreement reached at the end of September 2015 between Russia, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq and the Syrian Arab Republic to "help and cooperate in collecting information about the terrorist Daesh group" (ISIL) with a view to combatting the advances of the group, according to the statement issued by the Iraqi Joint Operations Command. The statement also cited "the increasing concern from Russia about thousands of Russian terrorists committing criminal acts within ISIS."
The Vienna peace talks for Syria, as of 14 November 2015 known as the talks of the International Syria Support Group (ISSG), were negotiations of foreign powers that began in Vienna, Austria in October 2015 at the level of foreign ministers, to resolve the conflict in Syria, after unsuccessful previous Syrian peace initiatives.
The Caesar Syria Civilian Protection Act of 2019, also known as the Caesar Act, is United States legislation that sanctions the Syrian government, including Syrian president Bashar al-Assad, for war crimes against the Syrian population. The Act was signed into law by President Trump in December 2019, and came into force on June 17, 2020.
The following is a timeline of the Syrian Civil War from September–December 2019. Information about aggregated casualty counts is found at Casualties of the Syrian Civil War.
Italy–Syria relations refer to bilateral relations between Italy and Syria. The Syrian embassy in Italy was located in Rome, whereas the consulate located in Milan. On 26 July 2024, Rome made the decision to start a reaprochement with Syria and open its embassy in Damascus.
Syrian foreign policy during the presidency of Bashar al-Assad is based on continuity from the Cold War-era policies of his father and predecessor, Hafiz al-Assad. Hafiz al-Assad was a strong supporter of Soviet Union and aligned Ba'athist Syria closely with the Eastern Bloc. During this period, Syria adopted a strong anti-Zionist posture in the region, based on its military doctrine of gaining "strategic parity" and forming joint Arab initiatives.
↑ Esslemont, Tom (23 February 2016). "EXCLUSIVE-Syrians suffer as anti-terror laws squeeze charities - survey". Reuters. Western anti-terror laws are forcing aid agencies in Syria to avoid communities controlled by extremist groups, making it harder to deliver vital supplies... A survey of 21 international and national non-governmental organisations (NGOs) found government donors and banks were also demanding more in-depth audits in the two years since jihadi group Islamic State (ISIS) took root, sending costs spiralling.
↑ Daher, Joseph. "Invisible Sanctions: How over-compliance limits humanitarian work on Syria"(PDF). Impact-CSRD. Alongside this situation, the risk of being cut off from the international financial system as a result of the US' extraterritorial sanctions is a risk that very few banks want to take. This leads to a situation in which banks generally over comply with sanctions, by demanding nearly systematically much more conditions to be filled by clients (whether individuals or organisations) in order to be on the safe side and prevent any risks for the institution as argued by an employee of a compliance service in a European private bank. This latter added that "any mention of Syria directly raises the red flag".
This page is based on this Wikipedia article Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply. Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.
