Memory and retention in learning

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Model of the Memory Process Modal model of memory.tif
Model of the Memory Process

Human memory is the process in which information and material is encoded, stored and retrieved in the brain. [1] Memory is a property of the central nervous system, with three different classifications: short-term, long-term and sensory memory. [2] The three types of memory have specific, different functions but each are equally important for memory processes. Sensory information is transformed and encoded in a certain way in the brain, which forms a memory representation. [3] This unique coding of information creates a memory. [3]

Contents

Memory and retention are linked because any retained information is kept in human memory stores, therefore without human memory processes, retention of material would not be possible. [4] In addition, memory and the process of learning are also closely connected. Memory is a site of storage and enables the retrieval and encoding of information, which is essential for the process of learning. [2] Learning is dependent on memory processes because previously stored knowledge functions as a framework in which newly learned information can be linked. [5]

Information is retained in human memory stores in different ways, but it is primarily done so through active learning, repetition and recall. [6] Information that is encoded and stored within memory stores can often be forgotten. There are multiple explanations for why this happens. These include: ineffective encoding of material, decay of information, interference, competition of newly learned material and retrieval failure. [7] There are multiple ways of improving the abilities of human memory and retention when engaging in learning. These depend on the nature of how the information was originally encoded into memory stores, and whether the stored material is regularly retrieved and recalled. [4] Human memory has been studied throughout history, and there is extensive literature available to help understand its complexity.

Types of memory

Long-term

Types of Long-term Memory LongTermMemory.jpg
Types of Long-term Memory

Long-term memory is the site for which information such as facts, physical skills and abilities, procedures and semantic material are stored. Long-term memory is important for the retention of learned information, allowing for a genuine understanding and meaning of ideas and concepts. [6] In comparison to short-term memory, the storage capacity of long-term memory can last for days, months, years or for an entire lifetime. [6] Long term memory can still be forgotten so the information that is held here is constantly changing over time. [8] Long-term memory has three components. Procedural memory is responsible for guiding how we perform certain tasks and providing the knowledge of how to do things, such as walking or talking. [9] Semantic memory is responsible for providing general world knowledge through the information we have accumulated over our lives. [9] Episodic memory is responsible for storing autobiographical events that we have personally experienced, which can be stated explicitly. [9]

Short-term

Short-term memory is responsible for retaining and processing information very temporarily. It is the information that we are currently aware of thinking about. [2] : 13  Short term memory is also known as the working memory. The storage capacity and duration of short-term memory is very limited; information can be lost easily with distraction. [2] A famous paper written by psychologist George Miller in 1956 analyses this concept further. Miller wrote how short-term memory only has the ability to process or hold seven, plus or minus two items at a time, which then expires after roughly 30 seconds. [2] This is due to short-term memory only having a certain number of "slots" in which to store information in. [2] Short term memory allows us to remember 7-8 sections of information. [8] An example would be a phone number or a sequence of words in a sentence. Despite the quick disappearance of information, short-term memory is an essential step for retaining information in long-term memory stores. Without it, information would not be able to be relayed into long-term memory.

Sensory

Sensory memory is thought of as a process of perception provided by the human senses. [2] Sensory memory retains the information perfectly and accurately for a few hundred milliseconds. [2] As the retention of information only lasts for such a short amount of time, this type of memory is often thought of as being a part of the process of perception instead of memory. Iconic memory and echoic memory are categories of sensory memory, and relay literal copies of sensory events to our memory. Iconic memory relays visual information and echoic memory relays auditory information. [10] Both types of memory have an unlimited capacity, but have a very short duration; iconic memory lasts for 50-500 milliseconds and echoic memory lasts for 8–10 seconds. [10]

Factors Affecting Information Transfer

There are four main factors that influence the transfer of information from short term memory to long term memory:

  1. Emotional State: we learned best when we are alert, motivated, surprised, and aroused due to the release of Norepinephrine which controls the memory of emotionally charges events [8]
  2. Rehearsal: Repeating information enhances memory [8]
  3. Association: Comparing new and old information helps us remember facts [8]
  4. Automatic memory: impressions in long term memory that are not consciously formed [8]

How information is learned and retained in memory

Processes of memory and learning are very interconnected and are often considered as the same. Psychologists however determine these as two distinct processes. Learning can be defined as the acquisition of relative knowledge gained through experience or studying, which can permanently modify a behaviour. [11] Memory can be defined as the ability to remember previous experiences. Memory is essential for learning new information, as it functions as a site for storage and retrieval of learned knowledge. Two categories of long-term memory are used when engaging in learning. The first kind is procedural: how-to processes, and the second is declarative: specific information that can be recalled and reported. [9]

There are many different ways of retaining information in memory. Acquiring and retaining new knowledge relies on the formation of associations created in memory stores. [7] Memory relies on the creation of associations, just as the creation of associations relies on memory when encoding and retaining new material. [5] The retention and retrieval of information in memory requires the information to be firmly embedded within a neural network; which can be done so through traditional methods of repetition and connecting new information with old information. [12] The process of repetition facilitates the process within the brain of solidifying connections. [13] When learning new information, the brain seeks to associate this material with previously stored knowledge through assimilation. [13] When we learn something new, our brain creates new neural pathways. Therefore, repetition when engaging in learning is important for retaining this information in long-term memory stores. [14]

Chunking has also proved to be a useful strategy for retaining information. [15] Chunking is the process of grouping together individual items of similarity. By attaching a new name to these groups and remembering the name rather than each item, the amount of information remembered has shown to improve significantly. [15] Through the separation of individual items, it becomes much easier to retain information, as our short-term memory can be so limiting. Overall, chunking enhances the ability of human memory to retain information. [15]

In addition, the recollection of learned information is essential to retaining such material in the long-term. [7] Recall refers to the re-accessing of previously learned information held in long-term memory stores. During this process, the brain relays a specific pattern of neural activity that echoes the original perception of that event. [12] Regular recalling of stored information helps to improve memory retention. The more the material is recalled, the more it becomes engrained within our memory. [4] When we repeatedly think about knowledge we have learned, our brain strengthens the existing neural pathways which embeds this knowledge further within our long-term memory stores. [16]

Chemistry of Thought Storage and Recall in Memory Processes

The understanding of the underlying chemistry of thought formation, storage, memory consolidation and formation of logical thought processes has been a huge mystery. Atta-ur-Rahman in 2001 first proposed that the folding of glycoproteins by intermolecular or intramolecular hydrogen bond formation may be the basic key process involved in memory storage. [17] The hydrogen bonding protein patterns hypothesis (HBPPH) proposes the rapid formation of hydrogen bonds between hydroxyl groups of sugar moieties present in the glycoproteins with hydroxyl (or NH) groups of other sugar moieties or biomolecules during the process of observation and learning. This process can lead to the creation of certain partly folded protein patterns that are stabilised by the hydrogen bonds. This provides a reasonable molecular mechanism by which the brain may gather and store information by the construction of intermolecular and intramolecular networks of folded glycoproteins. [18] [19] [20] The involvement of such partly folded proteins in memory processes has been supported by recent researches in the field. [21] Two mechanisms may be cosidered through which such partly folded protein patterns may be correlated togethr, thereby leading to logical thought and to consciousness. These can be via quantum effects, [22] [23] [24] [25] or it could occur by an overlap of molecular vibrations arising from these patterns. [26] Roger Penrose (Nobel Laureate) and others have also suggested that quantum oscillations may be involved in consciousness. [27] [28] [29] [30] [25]

Why learned information is forgotten

There are many explanations for why we forget learned information. A well-known explanation to explain why this happens is the ineffective encoding of material. This is when material appears to have been forgotten over time, however it is very likely that this material was never encoded into memory stores properly in the first place. [4] This is also referred to as pseudo-forgetting, and it is usually attributable to distractions, or a lack of attention when engaging in learning that lead to ineffective encoding. [4] Neural pathways and memory codes may still have been formed, however subsequent forgetting of learned information implies that it was ineffectively encoded within these pathways. [4]

Another explanation for why we forget learned information is the decay of information. This concept determines the impermanence of memory storage as an explanation for forgetting. [1] Decay theory posits that the process of forgetting is due to the inevitable fading of memory traces over time. [4] For this theory, the length of time that the information has been retained within memory stores is important. Essentially, the memories held in long-term stores start to fade as time passes, particularly if the memories haven't been re-visited. [1]

Interference theory provides another explanation for the forgetting of learned information. New memories interfere with old memories, and limits our ability to recall these over time. [5] There are two types of interference; retroactive and proactive. [4] Retroactive interference is when newly learned information impairs previously retained information, and proactive interference is when previously learned information interferes with newly retained information. [4] Essentially, interference theory posits that stored memories interfere and hamper one another, which is why we forget learned information.

The competition between newly learned information and previously learned information can cause retained information to be forgotten. According to theories, the capacity of our memory stores are finite and can only retain a limited amount of information. [5] Therefore, the creation of newer memories can lead to the destruction or replacement of older memories due to competition of finite memory stores. [5]

Retrieval failure provides another explanation for why we forget learned information. According to this theory, we forget information because it is inaccessible in long-term memory stores. Access to this information depends on retrieval cues, and the absence of these cues causes difficulties in recalling retained information. [3] Forgetting learned information occurs most often when the context and state are very different when encoding and retrieving. In these situations, there are no retrieval cues which can result in cue-dependent forgetting. [3] For example, many people do not remember much about their childhood. However, once returning to an old house or school; which provide retrieval cues, childhood memories usually begin to return. [31] Retrieval failure and an absence in cues can be very influential for forgetting learned information.

Methods of improving memory and retention

There are several methods of improving our memory, and our ability to retain more information when engaging in learning. Chunking is a well-known method of improving memory and retention. In order to effectively chunk information together, connections and relations between the different items must be made. In combination, associating groups of items with things held in memory stores can make this more memorable, and can improve retention. [13]

Five Human Senses: Hearing, Sight, Taste, Smell and Touch Five senses.jpg
Five Human Senses: Hearing, Sight, Taste, Smell and Touch

Another method for improving memory and retention is imaginative and abstract thinking. Using imagination and thinking abstractly when learning new things are effective ways of improving memory and enabling a great amount of material to be effectively retained. Imagination creates stronger visuals and connections, which can lead to significant improvement in memory and retention. [13] The VAI memory principle: Visualisation, Association and Imagination, improves memory and retention when learning considerably. [13] This principle combines different methods of improving memory and retention to create one comprehensive method for engaging in successful learning.

Other methods of maximising our ability to learn and retain new material is to use as many human senses as possible. These include: sight, touch, smell and hearing. All of these senses should be engaged when learning new information. [13] Research has shown that when engaging as many senses as possible at once, retention of information improves the most. [32]

Deeper processing of the originally learned material results in more effective encoding and retrieval, due to semantic processing having taken place. Semantic processing occurs after we hear information and encode its meaning, allowing for deeper processing. [9] Semantic encoding can therefore lead to greater levels of retention when learning new information. The avoidance of interfering stimuli such as music and technology when learning, can improve memory and retention significantly. These distractions interfere with the encoding of material in long-term memory stores. [9]

Matching retrieval cues when learning new information, to information that has originally been encoded in our brain, has also been shown to improve our memory and retention. [13] Retrieval cues can trigger stored memories, and are important for enhancing learning of new material.

There are many other methods of improving our memory and retention, however these are the most well-known and credible methods.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Forgetting</span> Loss or modification of information encoded in an individuals memory

Forgetting or disremembering is the apparent loss or modification of information already encoded and stored in an individual's short or long-term memory. It is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories are unable to be recalled from memory storage. Problems with remembering, learning and retaining new information are a few of the most common complaints of older adults. Studies show that retention improves with increased rehearsal. This improvement occurs because rehearsal helps to transfer information into long-term memory.

Long-term memory (LTM) is the stage of the Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model in which informative knowledge is held indefinitely. It is defined in contrast to sensory memory, the initial stage, and short-term or working memory, the second stage, which persists for about 18 to 30 seconds. LTM is grouped into two categories known as explicit memory and implicit memory. Explicit memory is broken down into episodic and semantic memory, while implicit memory includes procedural memory and emotional conditioning.

Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieval of information from the past. Along with encoding and storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humans and animals. Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of encoding specificity.

The interference theory is a theory regarding human memory. Interference occurs in learning. The notion is that memories encoded in long-term memory (LTM) are forgotten and cannot be retrieved into short-term memory (STM) because either memory could interfere with the other. There is an immense number of encoded memories within the storage of LTM. The challenge for memory retrieval is recalling the specific memory and working in the temporary workspace provided in STM. Retaining information regarding the relevant time of encoding memories into LTM influences interference strength. There are two types of interference effects: proactive and retroactive interference.

The Atkinson–Shiffrin model is a model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin. The model asserts that human memory has three separate components:

  1. a sensory register, where sensory information enters memory,
  2. a short-term store, also called working memory or short-term memory, which receives and holds input from both the sensory register and the long-term store, and
  3. a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed in the short-term store is held indefinitely.

The spacing effect demonstrates that learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out. This effect shows that more information is encoded into long-term memory by spaced study sessions, also known as spaced repetition or spaced presentation, than by massed presentation ("cramming").

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Testing effect</span> Memory effect in educational psychology

The testing effect suggests long-term memory is increased when part of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information from memory. It is different from the more general practice effect, defined in the APA Dictionary of Psychology as "any change or improvement that results from practice or repetition of task items or activities."

Endel Tulving was an Estonian-born Canadian experimental psychologist and cognitive neuroscientist. In his research on human memory he proposed the distinction between semantic and episodic memory. Tulving was a professor at the University of Toronto. He joined the Rotman Research Institute at Baycrest Health Sciences in 1992 as the first Anne and Max Tanenbaum Chair in Cognitive Neuroscience and remained there until his retirement in 2010. In 2006, he was named an Officer of the Order of Canada (OC), Canada's highest civilian honour.

Explicit memory is one of the two main types of long-term human memory, the other of which is implicit memory. Explicit memory is the conscious, intentional recollection of factual information, previous experiences, and concepts. This type of memory is dependent upon three processes: acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval.

A mental block is an uncontrollable suppression or repression of painful or unwanted thoughts/memories. It can also be an inability to continue or complete a train of thought, as in the case of writer's block. In the case of writer's block, many find it helpful to take a break and revisit their topic. Another tactic that is used when people with mental blocks are learning new information is repetition. A similar phenomenon occurs when one cannot solve a problem in mathematics which one would normally consider as simple. Mental blocks can be caused by physical disabilities or simply a lack of focus. Mental blocks are also often used to describe a temporary inability to recall a name or other information. A sudden cessation of speech or a thought process without an immediate observable cause sometimes can be considered a consequence of repression.

State-dependent memory or state-dependent learning is the phenomenon where people remember more information if their physical or mental state is the same at time of encoding and time of recall. State-dependent memory is heavily researched in regards to its employment both in regards to synthetic states of consciousness as well as organic states of consciousness such as mood. While state-dependent memory may seem rather similar to context-dependent memory, context-dependent memory involves an individual's external environment and conditions while state-dependent memory applies to the individual's internal conditions.

Information processing theory is the approach to the study of cognitive development evolved out of the American experimental tradition in psychology. Developmental psychologists who adopt the information processing perspective account for mental development in terms of maturational changes in basic components of a child's mind. The theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli. This perspective uses an analogy to consider how the mind works like a computer. In this way, the mind functions like a biological computer responsible for analyzing information from the environment. According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind's machinery includes attention mechanisms for bringing information in, working memory for actively manipulating information, and long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future. This theory addresses how as children grow, their brains likewise mature, leading to advances in their ability to process and respond to the information they received through their senses. The theory emphasizes a continuous pattern of development, in contrast with cognitive-developmental theorists such as Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development that thought development occurs in stages at a time.

Memory has the ability to encode, store and recall information. Memories give an organism the capability to learn and adapt from previous experiences as well as build relationships. Encoding allows a perceived item of use or interest to be converted into a construct that can be stored within the brain and recalled later from long-term memory. Working memory stores information for immediate use or manipulation, which is aided through hooking onto previously archived items already present in the long-term memory of an individual.

In mental memory, storage is one of three fundamental stages along with encoding and retrieval. Memory is the process of storing and recalling information that was previously acquired. Storing refers to the process of placing newly acquired information into memory, which is modified in the brain for easier storage. Encoding this information makes the process of retrieval easier for the brain where it can be recalled and brought into conscious thinking. Modern memory psychology differentiates between the two distinct types of memory storage: short-term memory and long-term memory. Several models of memory have been proposed over the past century, some of them suggesting different relationships between short- and long-term memory to account for different ways of storing memory.

Henry L. "Roddy" Roediger III is an American psychology researcher in the area of human learning and memory. He rose to prominence for his work on the psychological aspects of false memories.

Memory consolidation is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition. A memory trace is a change in the nervous system caused by memorizing something. Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes. The first, synaptic consolidation, which is thought to correspond to late-phase long-term potentiation, occurs on a small scale in the synaptic connections and neural circuits within the first few hours after learning. The second process is systems consolidation, occurring on a much larger scale in the brain, rendering hippocampus-dependent memories independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years. Recently, a third process has become the focus of research, reconsolidation, in which previously consolidated memories can be made labile again through reactivation of the memory trace.

In psychology, context-dependent memory is the improved recall of specific episodes or information when the context present at encoding and retrieval are the same. In a simpler manner, "when events are represented in memory, contextual information is stored along with memory targets; the context can therefore cue memories containing that contextual information". One particularly common example of context-dependence at work occurs when an individual has lost an item in an unknown location. Typically, people try to systematically "retrace their steps" to determine all of the possible places where the item might be located. Based on the role that context plays in determining recall, it is not at all surprising that individuals often quite easily discover the lost item upon returning to the correct context. This concept is heavily related to the encoding specificity principle.

Memory gaps and errors refer to the incorrect recall, or complete loss, of information in the memory system for a specific detail and/or event. Memory errors may include remembering events that never occurred, or remembering them differently from the way they actually happened. These errors or gaps can occur due to a number of different reasons, including the emotional involvement in the situation, expectations and environmental changes. As the retention interval between encoding and retrieval of the memory lengthens, there is an increase in both the amount that is forgotten, and the likelihood of a memory error occurring.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Memory</span> Faculty of mind to store and retrieve data

Memory is the faculty of the mind by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed. It is the retention of information over time for the purpose of influencing future action. If past events could not be remembered, it would be impossible for language, relationships, or personal identity to develop. Memory loss is usually described as forgetfulness or amnesia.

Distributed practice is a learning strategy, where practice is broken up into a number of short sessions over a longer period of time. Humans and other animals learn items in a list more effectively when they are studied in several sessions spread out over a long period of time, rather than studied repeatedly in a short period of time, a phenomenon called the spacing effect. The opposite, massed practice, consists of fewer, longer training sessions and is generally a less effective method of learning. For example, when studying for an exam, dispersing your studying more frequently over a larger period of time will result in more effective learning than intense study the night before.

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