Meteor shower

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Perseids over the United Kingdom 04-Perseid-2021-nX-5.jpg
Perseids over the United Kingdom

A meteor shower is a celestial event in which a number of meteors are observed to radiate, or originate, from one point in the night sky. These meteors are caused by streams of cosmic debris called meteoroids entering Earth's atmosphere at extremely high speeds on parallel trajectories. Most meteors are smaller than a grain of sand, so almost all of them disintegrate and never hit the Earth's surface. Very intense or unusual meteor showers are known as meteor outbursts and meteor storms, which produce at least 1,000 meteors an hour, most notably from the Leonids. [1] The Meteor Data Centre lists over 900 suspected meteor showers of which about 100 are well established. [2] Several organizations point to viewing opportunities on the Internet. [3] NASA maintains a daily map of active meteor showers. [4]

Contents

Historical developments

Diagram from 1872 PSM V01 D405 August meteor shower orbit.jpg
Diagram from 1872

A meteor shower in August 1583 was recorded in the Timbuktu manuscripts. [5] [6] [7] In the modern era, the first great meteor storm was the Leonids of November 1833. One estimate is a peak rate of over one hundred thousand meteors an hour, [8] but another, done as the storm abated, estimated more than two hundred thousand meteors during the 9 hours of the storm, [9] over the entire region of North America east of the Rocky Mountains. American Denison Olmsted (1791–1859) explained the event most accurately. After spending the last weeks of 1833 collecting information, he presented his findings in January 1834 to the American Journal of Science and Arts , published in January–April 1834, [10] and January 1836. [11] He noted the shower was of short duration and was not seen in Europe, and that the meteors radiated from a point in the constellation of Leo. He speculated the meteors had originated from a cloud of particles in space. [12] Work continued, yet coming to understand the annual nature of showers though the occurrences of storms perplexed researchers. [13]

The actual nature of meteors was still debated during the 19th century. Meteors were conceived as an atmospheric phenomenon by many scientists (Alexander von Humboldt, Adolphe Quetelet, Julius Schmidt) until the Italian astronomer Giovanni Schiaparelli ascertained the relation between meteors and comets in his work "Notes upon the astronomical theory of the falling stars" (1867). In the 1890s, Irish astronomer George Johnstone Stoney (1826–1911) and British astronomer Arthur Matthew Weld Downing (1850–1917) were the first to attempt to calculate the position of the dust at Earth's orbit. They studied the dust ejected in 1866 by comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle before the anticipated Leonid shower return of 1898 and 1899. Meteor storms were expected, but the final calculations showed that most of the dust would be far inside Earth's orbit. The same results were independently arrived at by Adolf Berberich of the Königliches Astronomisches Rechen Institut (Royal Astronomical Computation Institute) in Berlin, Germany. Although the absence of meteor storms that season confirmed the calculations, the advance of much better computing tools was needed to arrive at reliable predictions.

In 1981, Donald K. Yeomans of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory reviewed the history of meteor showers for the Leonids and the history of the dynamic orbit of Comet Tempel-Tuttle. [14] A graph [15] from it was adapted and re-published in Sky and Telescope . [16] It showed relative positions of the Earth and Tempel-Tuttle and marks where Earth encountered dense dust. This showed that the meteoroids are mostly behind and outside the path of the comet, but paths of the Earth through the cloud of particles resulting in powerful storms were very near paths of nearly no activity.

In 1985, E. D. Kondrat'eva and E. A. Reznikov of Kazan State University first correctly identified the years when dust was released which was responsible for several past Leonid meteor storms. In 1995, Peter Jenniskens predicted the 1995 Alpha Monocerotids outburst from dust trails. [17] In anticipation of the 1999 Leonid storm, Robert H. McNaught, [18] David Asher, [19] and Finland's Esko Lyytinen were the first to apply this method in the West. [20] [21] In 2006 Jenniskens published predictions for future dust trail encounters covering the next 50 years. [22] Jérémie Vaubaillon continues to update predictions based on observations each year for the Institut de Mécanique Céleste et de Calcul des Éphémérides (IMCCE). [23]

Radiant point

Meteor shower on chart PSM V18 D201 Shower of perseids sept 6 and 7.jpg
Meteor shower on chart

Because meteor shower particles are all traveling in parallel paths and at the same velocity, they will appear to an observer below to radiate away from a single point in the sky. This radiant point is caused by the effect of perspective, similar to parallel railroad tracks converging at a single vanishing point on the horizon. Meteor showers are normally named after the constellation from which the meteors appear to originate. This "fixed point" slowly moves across the sky during the night due to the Earth turning on its axis, the same reason the stars appear to slowly march across the sky. The radiant also moves slightly from night to night against the background stars (radiant drift) due to the Earth moving in its orbit around the Sun. See IMO Meteor Shower Calendar 2017 (International Meteor Organization) for maps of drifting "fixed points."

When the moving radiant is at the highest point, it will reach the observer's sky that night. The Sun will be just clearing the eastern horizon. For this reason, the best viewing time for a meteor shower is generally slightly before dawn — a compromise between the maximum number of meteors available for viewing and the brightening sky, which makes them harder to see.

Naming

Meteor showers are named after the nearest constellation, or bright star with a Greek or Roman letter assigned that is close to the radiant position at the peak of the shower, whereby the grammatical declension of the Latin possessive form is replaced by "id" or "ids." Hence, meteors radiating from near the star Delta Aquarii (declension "-i") are called the Delta Aquariids. The International Astronomical Union's Task Group on Meteor Shower Nomenclature and the IAU's Meteor Data Center keep track of meteor shower nomenclature and which showers are established.

Origin of meteoroid streams

Comet Encke's meteoroid trail is the diagonal red glow. Ssc2005-04a medium.jpg
Comet Encke's meteoroid trail is the diagonal red glow.
Meteoroid trail between fragments of Comet 73P Sig06-011 medium.jpg
Meteoroid trail between fragments of Comet 73P

A meteor shower results from an interaction between a planet, such as Earth, and streams of debris from a comet. Comets can produce debris by water vapor drag, as demonstrated by Fred Whipple in 1951, [24] and by breakup. Whipple envisioned comets as "dirty snowballs," made up of rock embedded in ice, orbiting the Sun. The "ice" may be water, methane, ammonia, or other volatiles, alone or in combination. The "rock" may vary in size from a dust mote to a small boulder. Dust mote sized solids are orders of magnitude more common than those the size of sand grains, which, in turn, are similarly more common than those the size of pebbles, and so on. When the ice warms and sublimates, the vapor can drag along dust, sand, and pebbles.

Each time a comet swings by the Sun in its orbit, some of its ice vaporizes, and a certain number of meteoroids will be shed. The meteoroids spread out along the entire trajectory of the comet to form a meteoroid stream, also known as a "dust trail" (as opposed to a comet's "gas tail" caused by the tiny particles that are quickly blown away by solar radiation pressure).

Recently, Peter Jenniskens [22] has argued that most of our short-period meteor showers are not from the normal water vapor drag of active comets, but the product of infrequent disintegrations, when large chunks break off a mostly dormant comet. Examples are the Quadrantids and Geminids, which originated from a breakup of asteroid-looking objects, (196256) 2003 EH1 and 3200 Phaethon, respectively, about 500 and 1000 years ago. The fragments tend to fall apart quickly into dust, sand, and pebbles and spread out along the comet's orbit to form a dense meteoroid stream, which subsequently evolves into Earth's path.

Dynamical evolution of meteoroid streams

Shortly after Whipple predicted that dust particles traveled at low speeds relative to the comet, Milos Plavec was the first to offer the idea of a dust trail, when he calculated how meteoroids, once freed from the comet, would drift mostly in front of or behind the comet after completing one orbit. The effect is simple celestial mechanics  – the material drifts only a little laterally away from the comet while drifting ahead or behind the comet because some particles make a wider orbit than others. [22] These dust trails are sometimes observed in comet images taken at mid infrared wavelengths (heat radiation), where dust particles from the previous return to the Sun are spread along the orbit of the comet (see figures).

The gravitational pull of the planets determines where the dust trail would pass by Earth orbit, much like a gardener directing a hose to water a distant plant. Most years, those trails would miss the Earth altogether, but in some years, the Earth is showered by meteors. This effect was first demonstrated from observations of the 1995 alpha Monocerotids, [25] [26] and from earlier not widely known identifications of past Earth storms.

Over more extended periods, the dust trails can evolve in complicated ways. For example, the orbits of some repeating comets, and meteoroids leaving them, are in resonant orbits with Jupiter or one of the other large planets – so many revolutions of one will equal another number of the other. This creates a shower component called a filament.

A second effect is a close encounter with a planet. When the meteoroids pass by Earth, some are accelerated (making wider orbits around the Sun), others are decelerated (making shorter orbits), resulting in gaps in the dust trail in the next return (like opening a curtain, with grains piling up at the beginning and end of the gap). Also, Jupiter's perturbation can dramatically change sections of the dust trail, especially for a short period comets, when the grains approach the giant planet at their furthest point along the orbit around the Sun, moving most slowly. As a result, the trail has a clumping, a braiding or a tangling of crescents, of each release of material.

The third effect is that of radiation pressure which will push less massive particles into orbits further from the Sun – while more massive objects (responsible for bolides or fireballs) will tend to be affected less by radiation pressure. This makes some dust trail encounters rich in bright meteors, others rich in faint meteors. Over time, these effects disperse the meteoroids and create a broader stream. The meteors we see from these streams are part of annual showers, because Earth encounters those streams every year at much the same rate.

When the meteoroids collide with other meteoroids in the zodiacal cloud, they lose their stream association and become part of the "sporadic meteors" background. Long since dispersed from any stream or trail, they form isolated meteors, not a part of any shower. These random meteors will not appear to come from the radiant of the leading shower.

Famous meteor showers

Perseids and Leonids

In most years, the most visible meteor shower is the Perseids, which peak on 12 August of each year at over one meteor per minute. NASA has a tool to calculate how many meteors per hour are visible from one's observing location.

The Leonid meteor shower peaks around 17 November of each year. The Leonid shower produces a meteor storm, peaking at rates of thousands of meteors per hour. Leonid storms gave birth to the term meteor shower when it was first realised that, during the November 1833 storm, the meteors radiated from near the star Gamma Leonis. The last Leonid storms were in 1999, 2001 (two), and 2002 (two). Before that, there were storms in 1767, 1799, 1833, 1866, 1867, and 1966. When the Leonid shower is not storming, it is less active than the Perseids.

See the Infographics on Meteor Shower Calendar-2021 on the right.

Meteor Shower Calendar shows the peak dates, Radiant Point, ZHR, and Origins of the meteors Meteor Shower Calendar-2021.png
Meteor Shower Calendar shows the peak dates, Radiant Point, ZHR, and Origins of the meteors

Other meteor showers

Established meteor showers

Official names are given in the International Astronomical Union's list of meteor showers. [27]

ShowerTimeParent object
Quadrantids early JanuaryThe same as the parent object of minor planet 2003 EH1 , [28] and Comet C/1490 Y1. [29] [30] Comet C/1385 U1 has also been studied as a possible source. [31]
Lyrids late AprilComet Thatcher
Pi Puppids (periodic)late AprilComet 26P/Grigg–Skjellerup
Eta Aquariids early MayComet 1P/Halley
Arietids mid-JuneComet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet groups complex [1] [32]
Beta Taurids late JuneComet 2P/Encke
June Bootids (periodic)late JuneComet 7P/Pons-Winnecke
Southern Delta Aquariids late JulyComet 96P/Machholz, Marsden and Kracht comet groups complex [1] [32]
Alpha Capricornids late JulyComet 169P/NEAT [33]
Perseids mid-AugustComet 109P/Swift-Tuttle
Kappa Cygnids mid-AugustMinor planet 2008 ED69 [34]
Aurigids (periodic)early SeptemberComet C/1911 N1 (Kiess) [35]
Draconids (periodic)early OctoberComet 21P/Giacobini-Zinner
Orionids late OctoberComet 1P/Halley
Southern Taurids early NovemberComet 2P/Encke
Northern Taurids mid-NovemberMinor planet 2004 TG10 and others [1] [36]
Andromedids (periodic)mid-NovemberComet 3D/Biela [37]
Alpha Monocerotids (periodic)mid-Novemberunknown [38]
Leonids mid-NovemberComet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle
Phoenicids (periodic)early DecemberComet 289P/Blanpain [39]
Geminids mid-DecemberMinor planet 3200 Phaethon [40]
Ursids late DecemberComet 8P/Tuttle [41]
Canis-Minorids

Extraterrestrial meteor showers

Mars meteor by MER Spirit rover Earth Sol63A UFO-A067R1.jpg
Mars meteor by MER Spirit rover

Any other Solar System body with a reasonably transparent atmosphere can also have meteor showers. As the Moon is in the neighborhood of Earth it can experience the same showers, but will have its own phenomena due to its lack of an atmosphere per se, such as vastly increasing its sodium tail. [42] NASA now maintains an ongoing database of observed impacts on the moon [43] maintained by the Marshall Space Flight Center whether from a shower or not.

Many planets and moons have impact craters dating back large spans of time. But new craters, perhaps even related to meteor showers are possible. Mars, and thus its moons, is known to have meteor showers. [44] These have not been observed on other planets as yet but may be presumed to exist. For Mars in particular, although these are different from the ones seen on Earth because of the different orbits of Mars and Earth relative to the orbits of comets. The Martian atmosphere has less than one percent of the density of Earth's at ground level, at their upper edges, where meteoroids strike; the two are more similar. Because of the similar air pressure at altitudes for meteors, the effects are much the same. Only the relatively slower motion of the meteoroids due to increased distance from the sun should marginally decrease meteor brightness. This is somewhat balanced because the slower descent means that Martian meteors have more time to ablate. [45]

On March 7, 2004, the panoramic camera on Mars Exploration Rover Spirit recorded a streak which is now believed to have been caused by a meteor from a Martian meteor shower associated with comet 114P/Wiseman-Skiff. A strong display from this shower was expected on December 20, 2007. Other showers speculated about are a "Lambda Geminid" shower associated with the Eta Aquariids of Earth (i.e., both associated with Comet 1P/Halley), a "Beta Canis Major" shower associated with Comet 13P/Olbers, and "Draconids" from 5335 Damocles. [46]

Isolated massive impacts have been observed at Jupiter: The 1994 Comet Shoemaker–Levy 9 which formed a brief trail as well, and successive events since then (see List of Jupiter events.) Meteors or meteor showers have been discussed for most of the objects in the Solar System with an atmosphere: Mercury, [47] Venus, [48] Saturn's moon Titan, [49] Neptune's moon Triton, [50] and Pluto. [51]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Leonids</span> Meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel–Tuttle

The Leonids are a prolific annual meteor shower associated with the comet Tempel–Tuttle, and are also known for their spectacular meteor storms that occur about every 33 years. The Leonids get their name from the location of their radiant in the constellation Leo: the meteors appear to radiate from that point in the sky. Their proper Greek name should be Leontids, but the word was initially constructed as a Greek/Latin hybrid and it has been used since. The meteor shower peak should be on 17 November, but any outburst in 2023 is likely to be from the 1767 meteoroid stream.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Zodiacal light</span> Faint solar glow caused by interplanetary dust at sunset and sunrise

The zodiacal light is a faint glow of diffuse sunlight scattered by interplanetary dust. Brighter around the Sun, it appears in a particularly dark night sky to extend from the Sun's direction in a roughly triangular shape along the zodiac, and appears with less intensity and visibility along the whole ecliptic as the zodiacal band. Zodiacal light spans the entire sky and contributes to the natural light of a clear and moonless night sky. A related phenomenon is gegenschein, sunlight backscattered from the interplanetary dust, appearing directly opposite to the Sun as a faint but slightly brighter oval glow.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Meteoroid</span> Sand- to boulder-sized particle of debris in the Solar System

A meteoroid is a small rocky or metallic body in outer space. Meteoroids are distinguished as objects significantly smaller than asteroids, ranging in size from grains to objects up to a meter wide. Objects smaller than meteoroids are classified as micrometeoroids or space dust. Most are fragments from comets or asteroids, whereas others are collision impact debris ejected from bodies such as the Moon or Mars.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Perseids</span> Prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Swift-Tuttle

The Perseids are a prolific meteor shower associated with the comet Swift–Tuttle that are usually visible from mid-July to late-August. The meteors are called the Perseids because they appear from the general direction of the constellation Perseus and in more modern times have a radiant bordering on Cassiopeia and Camelopardalis.

The Quadrantids (QUA) are a meteor shower that peaks in early January and whose radiant lies in the constellation Boötes. The zenithal hourly rate (ZHR) of this shower can be as high as that of two other reliably rich meteor showers, the Perseids in August and the Geminids in December, yet Quadrantid meteors are not seen as often as those of the two other showers because the time frame of the peak is exceedingly narrow, sometimes lasting only hours. Moreover, the meteors are quite faint, with mean apparent magnitudes between 3.0 and 6.0.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">55P/Tempel–Tuttle</span> Periodic comet with an orbital period of 33 years, parent body of the Leonid meteor shower

55P/Tempel–Tuttle is a retrograde periodic comet with an orbital period of 33 years. It fits the classical definition of a Halley-type comet with a period of between 20 and 200 years. It was independently discovered by Wilhelm Tempel on December 19, 1865, and by Horace Parnell Tuttle on January 6, 1866.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ursids</span> Meteor shower

The Ursid (URS) meteor activity begins annually around December 17 and runs for over a week, until the 25th or 26th. This meteor shower is named for its radiant point, which is located near the star Beta Ursae Minoris (Kochab) in the constellation Ursa Minor.

The Taurids are an annual meteor shower, associated with the comet Encke. The Taurids are actually two separate showers, with a Southern and a Northern component. The Southern Taurids originated from Comet Encke, while the Northern Taurids originated from the asteroid 2004 TG10, possibly a large fragment of Encke due to its similar orbital parameters. They are named after their radiant point in the constellation Taurus, where they are seen to come from in the sky. Because of their occurrence in late October and early November, they are also called Halloween fireballs. Since 2P/Encke is such a short period comet, the meteors have the slowest impact speed of the annual well-known meteor showers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Orionids</span> Meteor shower

The Orionids meteor shower, often shortened to the Orionids, is one of two meteor showers associated with Halley's Comet. The Orionids are so-called because the point they appear to come from, called the radiant, lies in the constellation Orion, but they can be seen over a large area of the sky. The Orionids are an annual meteor shower which last approximately one week in late October. In some years, meteors may occur at rates of 50–70 per hour.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Lyrids</span> Meteor shower occur in April

The April Lyrids are a meteor shower lasting from about April 15 to April 29 each year. The radiant of the meteor shower is located near the constellations Lyra and Hercules, near the bright star Vega. The peak of the shower is typically around April 22–23 each year.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Peter Jenniskens</span> Dutch astronomer

Petrus Matheus Marie (Peter) Jenniskens is a Dutch-American astronomer and a senior research scientist at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute and at NASA Ames Research Center. He is an expert on meteor showers, and wrote the book Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets, published in 2006 and Atlas of Earth’s Meteor Showers, published in 2023. He is past president of Commission 22 of the International Astronomical Union (2012–2015) and was chair of the Working Group on Meteor Shower Nomenclature (2006–2012) after it was first established. Asteroid 42981 Jenniskens is named in his honor.

The Andromedids meteor shower is associated with Biela's Comet, the showers occurring as Earth passes through old streams left by the comet's tail. The comet was observed to have broken up by 1846; further drift of the pieces by 1852 suggested the moment of breakup was in either 1842 or early 1843, when the comet was near Jupiter. The breakup led to particularly spectacular showers in subsequent cycles.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Tau Herculids</span> Annual meteor shower in May/June

The Tau Herculids are a meteor shower that when discovered in 1930 appeared to originate from the star Tau Herculis. The parent comet of the Tau Herculids is periodic comet Schwassmann-Wachmann 3 with a 5.4 year orbital period. This meteor shower occurs from May 19 - June 19. The meteor shower was first observed by the Kwasan Observatory in Kyoto, Japan in May 1930. The Tau Herculids' average radiant was α=236°, δ=+41°. Due to orbital perturbations of the meteor streams by Jupiter, 2022 activity will have a radiant of R.A. = 13:56 (209), Decl. = +28. The meteors are relatively slow moving making atmospheric entry at around 16 km/s (36,000 mph).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpha Capricornids</span>

Alpha Capricornids is a meteor shower that takes place as early as 7 July and continues until around 15 August. The meteor shower was discovered by Hungarian astronomer Miklos von Konkoly-Thege in 1871. This shower has infrequent but relatively bright meteors, with some fireballs. Parent body is comet 169P/NEAT.

(5496) 1973 NA, is a very eccentric and heavily tilted asteroid, classified as near-Earth object of the Apollo group, approximately 2 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 4 July 1973, by American astronomer Eleanor Helin at the U.S. Palomar Observatory in California. At the time of its discovery, it was the most highly inclined minor planet known to exist. It may be the parent body of the Quadrantids.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Alpha Monocerotids</span>

The Alpha Monocerotids is a meteor shower active from 15 to 25 November, with its peak occurring on 21 or 22 November. The speed of its meteors is 65 km/s, which is close to the maximum possible speed for meteors of about 73 km/s. Normally it has a low Zenithal Hourly Rate (ZHR), but occasionally it produces much more intense meteor storms that last less than an hour: such outbursts were observed in 1925, 1935, 1985, and 1995. The 1925 and 1935 storms both reached levels passing 1,000 ZHR.

<span class="nowrap">(196256) 2003 EH<sub>1</sub></span>

(196256) 2003 EH1 is an asteroid, classified as near-Earth object of the Amor group. It was discovered on 6 March 2003, by astronomers of the LONEOS program at Anderson Mesa Station near Flagstaff, Arizona, in the United States. Peter Jenniskens (2003–2004) proposed that it is the parent body of the Quadrantid meteor shower. 2003 EH1 is likely an extinct comet and may even be related to the comet C/1490 Y1. 2003 EH1 came to perihelion on 12 March 2014.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">209P/LINEAR</span>

209P/LINEAR is a periodic comet with an orbital period of 5.1 years. The comet has extremely low activity for its size and is probably in the process of evolving into an extinct comet.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">252P/LINEAR</span> Periodic comet and near-earth object

Comet 252P/LINEAR is a periodic comet and near-Earth object discovered by the LINEAR survey on April 7, 2000. The comet is a Jupiter family comet, meaning that it passes quite close to the orbit of Jupiter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Cameras for All-Sky Meteor Surveillance</span> Meteor shower observatory

CAMS is a NASA-sponsored international project that tracks and triangulates meteors during night-time video surveillance in order to map and monitor meteor showers. Data processing is housed at the Carl Sagan Center of the SETI Institute in California, USA. Goal of CAMS is to validate the International Astronomical Union's Working List of Meteor Showers, discover new meteor showers, and predict future meteor showers.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Jenniskens, P. (2006). Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   978-0-521-85349-1.
  2. ↑ Meteor Data Center list of Meteor Showers
  3. ↑ St. Fleur, Nicholas, "The Quadrantids and Other Meteor Showers That Will Light Up Night Skies in 2018", The New York Times, January 2, 2018
  4. ↑ NASA Meteor Shower Portal
  5. ↑ Holbrook, Jarita C.; Medupe, R. Thebe; Urama, Johnson O. (2008). African Cultural Astronomy. Springer. ISBN   978-1-4020-6638-2.
  6. ↑ Abraham, Curtis. "Stars of the Sahara". New Scientist, issue 2617,15 August 2007, page 39–41
  7. ↑ Hammer, Joshua (2016). The Bad-Ass Librarians of Timbuktu And Their Race to Save the World's Most Precious Manuscripts. New York: Simon & Schuster. pp. 26–27. ISBN   978-1-4767-7743-6.
  8. ↑ Space.com The 1833 Leonid Meteor Shower: A Frightening Flurry
  9. ↑ Leonid MAC Brief history of the Leonid shower
  10. ↑ Olmsted, Denison (1833). "Observations on the Meteors of November 13th, 1833". The American Journal of Science and Arts. 25: 363–411. Retrieved 21 May 2013.
  11. ↑ Olmsted, Denison (1836). "Facts respecting the Meteoric Phenomena of November 13th, 1834". The American Journal of Science and Arts . 29 (1): 168–170.
  12. ↑ Observing the Leonids Archived 2013-03-04 at the Wayback Machine Gary W. Kronk
  13. ↑ F.W. Russell, Meteor Watch Organizer, by Richard Taibi, May 19, 2013, accessed 21 May 2013
  14. ↑ Yeomans, Donald K. (September 1981). "Comet Tempel-Tuttle and the Leonid meteors". Icarus . 47 (3): 492–499. Bibcode:1981Icar...47..492Y. doi:10.1016/0019-1035(81)90198-6.
  15. ↑ https://web.archive.org
  16. ↑ Comet 55P/Tempel-Tuttle and the Leonid Meteors Archived 2007-06-30 at the Wayback Machine (1996, see p. 6)
  17. ↑ Article published in 1997, notes prediction in 1995 - Jenniskens, P.; Betlem, H.; De Lignie, M.; Langbroek, M. (1997). "The Detection of a Dust Trail in the Orbit of an Earth-threatening Long-Period Comet". Astrophysical Journal. 479 (1): 441. Bibcode:1997ApJ...479..441J. doi: 10.1086/303853 .
  18. ↑ Re: (meteorobs) Leonid Storm? Archived 2007-03-07 at the Wayback Machine By Rob McNaught,
  19. ↑ Blast from the Past Armagh Observatory press release Archived 2006-12-06 at the Wayback Machine 1999 April 21st.
  20. ↑ Royal Astronomical Society Press Notice Ref. PN 99/27, Issued by: Dr Jacqueline Mitton RAS Press Officer
  21. ↑ Voyage through a comet's trail, The 1998 Leonids sparkled over Canada By BBC Science's Dr Chris Riley on board NASA's Leonid mission
  22. 1 2 3 Jenniskens P. (2006). Meteor Showers and their Parent Comets. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K., 790 pp.
  23. ↑ IMCCE Prediction page Archived 2012-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
  24. ↑ Whipple, F. L. (1951). "A Comet Model. II. Physical Relations for Comets and Meteors". Astrophys. J. 113: 464. Bibcode:1951ApJ...113..464W. doi: 10.1086/145416 .
  25. ↑ Jenniskens P., 1997. Meteor steram activity IV. Meteor outbursts and the reflex motion of the Sun. Astron. Astrophys. 317, 953–961.
  26. ↑ Jenniskens P., Betlem, H., De Lignie, M., Langbroek, M. (1997). The detection of a dust trail in the orbit of an Earth-threatening long-period comet. Astrohys. J. 479, 441–447.
  27. ↑ "List of all meteor showers". International Astronomical Union. 15 August 2015.
  28. ↑ Jenniskens, P. (March 2004). "2003 EH1 is the Quadrantid shower parent comet". Astronomical Journal. 127 (5): 3018–3022. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.3018J. doi: 10.1086/383213 .
  29. ↑ Ball, Phillip (2003). "Dead comet spawned New Year meteors". Nature . doi:10.1038/news031229-5.
  30. ↑ Haines, Lester, Meteor shower traced to 1490 comet break-up: Quadrantid mystery solved, The Register , January 8, 2008.
  31. ↑ Marco Micheli; Fabrizio Bernardi; David J. Tholen (May 16, 2008). "Updated analysis of the dynamical relation between asteroid 2003 EH1 and comets C/1490 Y1 and C/1385 U1". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society: Letters. 390 (1): L6–L8. arXiv: 0805.2452 . Bibcode:2008MNRAS.390L...6M. doi:10.1111/j.1745-3933.2008.00510.x. S2CID   119299384.
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