Outline of the history of Western civilization

Last updated

The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to the history of Western civilization:

Contents

History of Western civilization record of the development of human civilization beginning in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, and generally spreading westwards.

Ancient Greek science, philosophy, democracy, architecture, literature, and art provided a foundation embraced and built upon by the Roman Empire as it swept up Europe, including the Hellenic world in its conquests in the 1st century BC. From its European and Mediterranean origins, Western civilization has spread to produce the dominant cultures of modern North America, South America, and much of Oceania, and has had immense global influence in recent centuries.

Nature of Western civilization

In philosophy, first civilizations had made numerous powerful contributions to western civilization. Greek philosophers were capable thinkers who were resolved to look for truth to a specific subject or question regardless of where it drove them. The well-known philosophers trusted that life was not worth living unless it was inspected and the truth about existence was searched out. With a specific end goal to solve problems in life, Socrates created a method for taking care of these problems called the Socratic Method. On the planet today this method is generally known as the Scientific method and is utilized broadly in the region of science. Plato additionally had numerous equitable thoughts which he communicated through his book. Ultimately, Aristotle accepted unequivocally that human reason was critical. These thoughts alongside the thoughts of human thinking, norms for justice, and a majority rules system are as yet utilized as a part of Western civilization. The Western world, also known as the West and the Occident, is a term referring to different nations depending on the context. [1]

Antiquity: before 500

Rise of Christendom

The Middle Ages

Early Middle Ages: 500–1000

High Middle Ages: 1000–1300

Late Middle Ages: 1300–1500

Renaissance and reformation

The Renaissance: 14th to 17th Century

The reformation: 1500–1650

Rise of Western empires: 1500–1800

Enlightenment

Revolution: 1770–1815

Napoleonic Wars

1815–1870

Rise of the English-speaking world: 1815–1870

United Kingdom and British Empire: 1815–1870

  • British Empire – The British Empire comprised the dominions, Crown colonies, protectorates, League of Nations mandates and other territories ruled or administered by the United Kingdom. [61] [62] [63] [64]
  • Pax BritannicaPax Britannica was the period of relative peace in Europe and the world during which the British Empire controlled most of the key maritime trade routes and enjoyed unchallenged sea power.
  • Constitutional monarchy – Constitutional monarchy is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state within the parameters of a constitution, whether it be a written, uncodified, or blended constitution.
  • Abolitionism – Abolitionism is a movement to end slavery.
  • Canada – Canada is a North American country consisting of ten provinces and three territories.
  • Australia – The history of Australia from 1788 to 1850 covers the early colonies period of Australia's history, from the arrival of the First Fleet of British ships at Sydney to establish the penal colony of New South Wales in 1788 to the European exploration of the continent and establishment of other colonies and the beginnings of autonomous democratic government.
  • New Zealand – New Zealand is an island country located in the southwestern Pacific Ocean.

United States: 1815–1870

  • Louisiana Purchase – The Louisiana Purchase was the acquisition by the United States of America of France's claim to the territory of Louisiana in 1803. [65] [66] [67]
  • Oregon Country – The Oregon Country was a predominantly American term referring to a disputed ownership region of the Pacific Northwest of North America.
  • Abraham Lincoln – Abraham Lincoln was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865.
  • Confederate States of America – The Confederate States of America was a government set up from 1861 to 1865 by eleven Southern slave states that had declared their secession from the United States.
  • Emancipation Proclamation – The Emancipation Proclamation is an executive order issued by United States President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, during the American Civil War using his war powers. [68]
  • Alaska – also known as Seward's Folly, the Alaska territory was purchased by the United States from Russia in 1867.

Fall of the Spanish Empire: 1833–1898

Continental Europe: 1815–1870

Culture, arts and sciences 1815-1914

New imperialism: 1870–1914

Great powers and the First World War: 1870–1918

United States: 1870–1914

Europe: 1870–1914

British dominions: 1870–1914

New alliances

World War I (1914-1918)

Inter-war years: 1918–1939

United States in the inter-war years

Europe in the inter-war years

British dominions in the inter-war years

Rise of totalitarianism

Second World War and its aftermath: 1939–1950

Fall of the Western empires: 1945–1980

Cold War: 1945–1991

Western countries: 1945–1980

North America: 1945–1980

Europe

Australia and New Zealand: 1945–1980

Western culture: 1945–1980

Western nations: 1980–Continuing

Western nations and the world

Western society and culture (since 1980)

Western Civilization: Future (2001-Present)

Western civilization publications

See also

Notes

  1. There are ten pronunciations of Islam in English, differing in whether the first or second syllable has the stress, whether the s is /z/ or /s/, and whether the a is pronounced /ɑː/, /æ/ or (when the stress is on the first syllable) /ə/ (Merriam Webster). The most common are /ˈɪzləm,ˈɪsləm,ɪzˈlɑːm,ɪsˈlɑːm/ (Oxford English Dictionary, Random House) and /ˈɪzlɑːm,ˈɪslɑːm/ (American Heritage Dictionary).
  2. /ʔiˈslaːm/: Arabic pronunciation varies regionally. The first vowel ranges from [ i ]~[ ɪ ]~[ e ]. The second vowel ranges from [ æ ]~[ a ]~[ ä ]~[ ɛ ]. At some geographic regions, such as Northwestern Africa they don't have stress.
  3. 9/11 is pronounced "nine eleven". The slash is not part of the pronunciation. The name is frequently used in British English as well as American English even though the dating conventions differ: "9/11" in British English would normally refer to 9 November.

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christendom</span> Countries or societies in which Christians abide

Christendom refers to Christian states, Christian-majority countries or countries in which Christianity is dominant or prevails.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Europe</span> Continent

Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Asia and Africa. Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the waterway of the Bosporus Strait.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Empire</span> Multiple states under one central authority, usually created by conquest

An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant center and subordinate peripheries". The center of the empire exercises political control over the peripheries. Within an empire, different populations have different sets of rights and are governed differently. Narrowly defined, an empire is a sovereign state whose head of state is an emperor or empress; but not all states with aggregate territory under the rule of supreme authorities are called empires or are ruled by an emperor; nor have all self-described empires been accepted as such by contemporaries and historians.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">German Empire</span> 1871–1918 empire in Central Europe

The German Empire, also referred to as Imperial Germany, the Second Reich or simply Germany, was the period of the German Reich from the unification of Germany in 1871 until the November Revolution in 1918, when the German Reich changed its form of government from a monarchy to a republic.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Europe</span>

The history of Europe is traditionally divided into four time periods: prehistoric Europe, classical antiquity, the Middle Ages, and the modern era.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western Europe</span> Subregion of the European continent

Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context.

Pax Americana is a term applied to the concept of relative peace in the Western Hemisphere and later in the world after the end of World War II in 1945, when the United States became the world's dominant economic, cultural, and military power.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hegemony</span> Political, economic or military predominance of one state over other states

Hegemony is the political, economic, and military predominance of one state over other states, either regional or global.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Papal States</span> Catholic state in Italy (756–1870)

The Papal States, officially the State of the Church, were a conglomeration of territories on the Apennine Peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the Pope from 756 until 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th century until the Unification of Italy, between 1859 and 1870.

Superpower describes a state or supranational union that holds a dominant position characterized by the ability to exert influence or project power on a global scale. This is done through the combined means of economic, military, technological, political, and cultural strength as well as diplomatic and soft power influence. Traditionally, superpowers are preeminent among the great powers. While a great power state is capable of exerting its influence globally, superpowers are states so influential that no significant action can be taken by the global community without first considering the positions of the superpowers on the issue.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Southern Europe</span> Southern region of Europe

Southern Europe is the southern region of Europe. It is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Cyprus, Gibraltar, Greece, Italy, Kosovo, Malta, Monaco, Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, southern France, Spain, Turkey, and Vatican City.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Culture of Europe</span>

The culture of Europe is diverse, and rooted in its art, architecture, traditions, cuisines, music, folklore, embroidery, film, literature, economics, philosophy and religious customs.

The Western religions are the religions that originated within Western culture, which are thus historically, culturally, and theologically distinct from Eastern, African and Iranian religions. The term Abrahamic religions is often used instead of using the East and West terminology, as these originated in the Middle East.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">History of Western civilization</span>

Western civilization traces its roots back to Europe and the Mediterranean. It is linked to ancient Greece, the Roman Empire and Medieval Western Christendom which emerged during the Middle Ages and experienced such transformative episodes as the development of Scholasticism, the Renaissance, the Reformation, the Enlightenment, the Industrial Revolution, the Scientific Revolution, and the development of liberal democracy. The civilizations of Classical Greece and Ancient Rome are considered seminal periods in Western history. Major cultural contributions also came from the Christianized Germanic peoples, such as the Franks, the Goths, and the Burgundians. Charlemagne founded the Carolingian Empire and he is referred to as the "Father of Europe." Contributions also emerged from pagan peoples of pre-Christian Europe, such as the Celts and Germanic pagans as well as some significant religious contributions derived from Judaism and Hellenistic Judaism stemming back to Second Temple Judea, Galilee, and the early Jewish diaspora; and some other Middle Eastern influences. Western Christianity has played a prominent role in the shaping of Western civilization, which throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to Christian culture..

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in Europe</span>

Christianity is the largest religion in Europe. Christianity has been practiced in Europe since the first century, and a number of the Pauline Epistles were addressed to Christians living in Greece, as well as other parts of the Roman Empire.

The history of the Catholic Church is the formation, events, and historical development of the Catholic Church through time.

The European balance of power is a tenet in international relations that no single power should be allowed to achieve hegemony over a substantial part of Europe. During much of the Modern Age, the balance was achieved by having a small number of ever-changing alliances contending for power, which culminated in the World Wars of the early 20th century. By 1945, European-led global dominance and rivalry had ended and the doctrine of European balance of power was replaced by a worldwide balance of power involving the United States and the Soviet Union as the modern superpowers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western world</span> Countries with an originally European shared culture

The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and states in the regions of Australasia, Western Europe, and Northern America; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also constitute the West. The Western world likewise is called the Occident in contrast to the Eastern world known as the Orient. The West is considered an evolving concept; made up of cultural, political, and economic synergy among diverse groups of people, and not a rigid region with fixed borders and members. Definitions of "Western world" vary according to context and perspectives.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Western culture</span> Norms, values, customs and political systems of the Western world

Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, or Western society, includes the diverse heritages of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, belief systems, political systems, artifacts and technologies of the Western world. The core of Western civilization, broadly defined, is formed by the combined foundations of Greco-Roman civilization and Western Christianity. While Western culture is a broad concept, and does not relate to a region with fixed members or geographical confines, it generally relates to the cultures of countries with historical ties to a European country or a number of European countries, or to the variety of cultures within Europe itself. However, countries toward the east of Europe are sometimes excluded from definitions of the Western world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Italophilia</span> Admiration, general appreciation or love of Italy, its culture, society, arts and people

Italophilia is the admiration, appreciation or emulation of Italy, its people, culture and its contributions to Western civilization. Its opposite is Italophobia.

References

  1. Western Civilization, Our Tradition; James Kurth; accessed 30 August 2011
  2. Yenne 2010 , p. 159
  3. Chris Scarre, The Penguin Historical Atlas of Ancient Rome (London: Penguin Books, 1995).
  4. "Roman Empire", Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2008
  5. John Hines; Karen Høilund Nielsen; Frank Siegmund (1999). The Pace of Change: Studies in Early-medieval Chronology. Oxbow Books. p. 93. ISBN   978-1-900188-78-4.
  6. The delimiting dates vary; often cited are 410, the sack of Rome by Alaric I; and 751, the accession of Pippin the Short and the establishment of the Carolingian dynasty.
  7. Bury, J. B., The Invasion of Europe by the Barbarians, Norton Library, 1967.
  8. Jacobs, Louis (2007). "Judaism". In Fred Skolnik (ed.). Encyclopaedia Judaica . Vol. 11 (2d ed.). Farmington Hills, Mich.: Thomson Gale. p. 511. ISBN   978-0-02-865928-2. Judaism, the religion, philosophy, and way of life of the Jews
  9. O'Rahilly, Thomas Francis (1942), The Two Patricks: A Lecture on the History of Christianity in Fifth-century Ireland, Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies, pp. 43–44
  10. Ball, Martin J.; Fife, James (2002), The Celtic Languages, USA: Routledge, pp. 82–83, ISBN   0-415-28080-X
  11. Old Irish is a Q-Celtic language, which means that the sound /p/ in other languages is converted to the sound /k/.
  12. St Patrick in the Catholic Encyclopedia (1913).
  13. Common Worship: Services and Prayers for the Church of England, The Calendar, p. 7
  14. Brown, Peter (2003). The Rise of Western Christendom. Malden, MA, USA: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. p. 137.
  15. The date 481 is arrived at by counting back from the Battle of Tolbiac, which Gregory of Tours places in the fifteenth year of Clovis's reign.
  16. Rosenwein, Barbara (2004). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Canada: University of Toronto Press. p. 43.
  17. Geary, Patrick (2003). Readings in Medieval History: Gregory of Tours History of the Franks. Canada: Broadview Press Ltd. p. 153.
  18. Frassetto, Michael, Encyclopedia of barbarian Europe, (ABC-CLIO, 2003), p. 126
  19. Lecker, Michael (2008), "The 'Constitution of Medina': Muhammad's First Legal Document", Journal of Islamic Studies, 19 (2): 251–253, doi:10.1093/jis/etn021.
  20. Schulman, Jana K. (2002). The Rise of the Medieval World, 500-1300: A Biographical Dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 101. ISBN   0-313-30817-9.
  21. Littlewood, Ian (2002). France. Rough Guides. p. 34. ISBN   1-85828-826-6.
  22. Cawthorne, Nigel (2004). Military Commanders: The 100 Greatest Throughout History. Enchanted Lion Books. pp. 52–53. ISBN   1-59270-029-2.
  23. Fouracre, Paul (2000). The Age of Charles Martel. Longman. p. 55. ISBN   0-582-06475-9.
  24. Kibler, William W.; Zinn, Grover A. (1995). Medieval France: An Encyclopedia. Routledge. pp. 205–206. ISBN   0-8240-4444-4.
  25. The Frankish Kingdom Archived 2009-03-06 at the Wayback Machine . 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History
  26. "Charles's victory has often been regarded as decisive for world history, since it preserved western Europe from the Moors conquest and Islamization." Battle of Tours - Britannica Online Encyclopedia Archived 2008-08-27 at the Wayback Machine
  27. "Number of Catholics on the Rise". Zenit News Agency. 27 April 2010. Archived from the original on 27 July 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-02.. For greater details on numbers of Catholics and priests and their distribution by continent and for changes between 2000 and 2008, see "Annuario Statistico della Chiesa dell'anno 2008". Holy See Press Office. 27 April 2010. Retrieved 2010-05-02.[ permanent dead link ] (in Italian)
  28. "Compendium of the CCC, 11". Vatican.va. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
  29. "Compendium of the CCC, 226". Vatican.va. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
  30. "Compendium of the CCC, 388". Vatican.va. Retrieved 2011-06-30.
  31. The word friar is etymologically related to the word for brother in Latin. "friar - Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary" . Retrieved 2008-10-21.
  32. (Cf. Summa Theologiae, I, Q, 25, Art 6 as 4um).
  33. Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The First Crusaders, 1095–1131 Cambridge University Press, 1998. ISBN   0-521-64603-0.
  34. See Steven P. Marone, "Medieval philosophy in context" in A. S. McGrade, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Medieval Philosophy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003). On the difference between scholastic and medieval monastic postures towards learning, see Jean Leclercq, The Love of Learning and the Desire for God (New York: Fordham University Press, 1970) esp. 89; 238ff.
  35. Goldhaber & Nieto 2010 , p. 940
  36. de Monstrelet, Enguerrand (1810). "The French and English meet in battle on the plains of Azincourt". The Chronicles of Enguerrand de Monstrelet. Johnes, Thomas (trans.) (1853 ed.). London: Henry Bohn. p. 340.
  37. Mullinger, James Bass (1911). "Universities"  . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 27 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 748–780, see page 748.
  38. See People of the Millenium Archived 2012-03-03 at the Wayback Machine for an overview of the wide acclaim. In 1999, the A&E Network ranked Gutenberg no. 1 on their "People of the Millennium" countdown Archived 2010-08-29 at the Wayback Machine . In 1997, Time–Life magazine picked Gutenberg's invention as the most important of the second millennium Archived 2010-03-10 at the Wayback Machine ; the same did four prominent US journalists in their 1998 resume 1,000 Years, 1,000 People: Ranking The Men and Women Who Shaped The Millennium . The Johann Gutenberg entry of the Catholic Encyclopedia describes his invention as having made a practically unparalleled cultural impact in the Christian era.
  39. McLuhan 1962 ; Eisenstein 1980 ; Febvre & Martin 1997 ; Man 2002
  40. Gleason, John B. "The Birth Dates of John Colet and Erasmus of Rotterdam: Fresh Documentary Evidence," Renaissance Quarterly, The University of Chicago Press on behalf of the Renaissance Society of America, Vol. 32, No. 1 (Spring, 1979), pp. 73–76
  41. St. Thomas More, 1478–1535 at Savior.org
  42. Homily at the Canonization of St. Thomas More Archived 2016-03-04 at the Wayback Machine at The Center for Thomas More Studies at the University of Dallas, 2010, citing text "Recorded in The Tablet, June 1, 1935, pp. 694–695"
  43. Linder, Douglas O. The Trial of Sir Thomas More: A Chronology at University Of Missouri-Kansas City (UMKC) School Of Law
  44. Christopher Columbus Encyclopædia Britannica. 2010. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 8 June 2010.
  45. Scholastic Teacher – Christopher Columbus (1451–1506) Archived 2011-09-20 at the Wayback Machine Teaching Resources, Children's Book Recommendations, and Student Activities. Milton Meltzer. Author, Columbus and the World Around Him.
  46. World Book – Columbus, Christopher Archived 2012-12-03 at archive.today "Columbus, Christopher". World Book Store has the encyclopedia, dictionary, atlas, homework help, study aids, and curriculum guides. 2010
  47. COLUMBUS, CHRISTOPHER Archived 2011-06-28 at the Wayback Machine
    Memorials Of Columbus: Or, A Collection Of Authentic Documents Of That Celebrated Navigator (page 9) Country of origin: USA. Pages: 428. Publisher: BiblioBazaar. Publication Date: 2010-01-01.
    Native American History for Dummies (page 127) Authors: Dorothy Lippert, Stephen J. Spignesi and Phil Konstantin. Paperback: 364 pages. Publisher: For Dummies. Publication Date: 2007-10-29.
    The peoples of the Caribbean: an encyclopedia of archeology and traditional culture (p. 67) Author: Nicholas J. Saunders. Hardcover: 399 pages. Publisher: ABC-CLIO. Publication Date: 15 July 2006.
  48. "Spain : The Christian states, 711-1035 - Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Britannica.com. 2010-07-11. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
  49. Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe: Urkunden, Akten und Nachrichten: Texte und Übersetzungen, ISBN   3-05-003009-7, pp. 23ff. (online); Marian Biskup: Regesta Copernicana (calendar of Copernicus' Papers), Ossolineum, 1973, p. 32 (online). This spelling of the surname is rendered in many publications (Auflistung)
  50. Linton (2004, p. 39). Copernicus was not, however, the first to propose some form of heliocentric system. A Greek mathematician and astronomer, Aristarchus of Samos, had already done so as early as the 3rd century BCE. Nevertheless, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline (Dreyer, 1953, pp. 135–48).
  51. Mancall 1999, pp. 26–53.
  52. Parry 1963, pp. 1–5.
  53. Arnold 2002, p. 11.
  54. "Mercantilism". The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics. Retrieved 2010-03-14.
  55. "Declaring Independence" Archived 2012-06-30 at the Wayback Machine , Revolutionary War, Digital History, University of Houston. From Adams' notes: "Why will you not? You ought to do it." "I will not." "Why?" "Reasons enough." "What can be your reasons?" "Reason first, you are a Virginian, and a Virginian ought to appear at the head of this business. Reason second, I am obnoxious, suspected, and unpopular. You are very much otherwise. Reason third, you can write ten times better than I can." "Well," said Jefferson, "if you are decided, I will do as well as I can." "Very well. When you have drawn it up, we will have a meeting.""
  56. Autor, Frank; Levy, David and Murnane, Richard J. "The Skill Content of Recent Technological Change: An Empirical Exploration" Archived 2010-03-15 at the Wayback Machine Quarterly Journal of Economics (2003)
  57. Anstey at Welcome to Leicester (visitoruk.com) Archived 2016-02-05 at the Wayback Machine According to this source, "A half-witted Anstey lad, Ned Ludlam or Ned Ludd, gave his name to the Luddites, who in the 1800s followed his earlier example by smashing machinery in protest against the Industrial Revolution."
  58. Palmer, Roy (1998) The Sound of History: Songs and Social Comment, Oxford University Press, ISBN   978-0-19-215890-1, p. 103
  59. Chambers, Robert (2004) Book of Days: A Miscellany of Popular Antiquities in Connection with the Calendar, Part 1, Kessinger, ISBN   978-0-7661-8338-4, p. 357
  60. "Who were the Luddites and what did they want?". The National Archives. Retrieved 19 August 2011.{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  61. Ferguson, Niall (2004). Empire, The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power. Basic Books. ISBN   0-465-02328-2.
  62. Maddison 2001, pp. 98, 242.
  63. Ferguson 2004, p. 15.
  64. Elkins2005, p. 5.
  65. David M. Kennedy; Lizabeth Cohen; Professor Thomas Andrew Bailey; Thomas Bailey (25 December 2008). The American Pageant: A History of the American People. Wadsworth. ISBN   978-0-547-16654-4.
  66. Table 1.1 Acquisition of the Public Domain 1781–1867 Archived 2003-10-02 at the Wayback Machine . (PDF) . Retrieved on 2011-12-19.
  67. "Louisiana Purchase". Lsm.crt.state.la.us. Retrieved 2010-06-11.
  68. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (2010) pp 239-42
  69. An alternative translation is North German Federation.
  70. 1 2 "German constitution of 1871" (in German). De.wikisource.org. 16 March 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
  71. 1 2 Harper's magazine, Volume 63. Pp. 593. The term "reich" does not literally connote an empire as has been commonly assumed by English-speaking people, the term "Kaiserreich" literally denotes an empire – particularly a hereditary empire led by a literal emperor, though "reich" has been used in German to denote the Roman Empire because it has a weak hereditary tradition. In the case of the German Empire, the official name was Deutsches Reich that is properly translated as "German Realm" because the official position of head of state in the constitution of the German Empire was officially a "presidency" of a confederation of German states led by the King of Prussia who would assume "the title of German Emperor" as referring to the German people but was not emperor of Germany as in an emperor of a state.
  72. 1 2 World Book, Inc. The World Book dictionary, Volume 1. World Book, Inc., 2003. Pp. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" that was a former official name of the Germany.
  73. 1 2 Joseph Whitaker. Whitaker's almanack, 1991. J Whitaker & Sons, 1990. Pp. 765. Refers to the term Deutsches Reich being translated in English as "German Realm", up to and including the Nazi period.
  74. "France". Berkley Center for Religion, Peace, and World Affairs. Archived from the original on 2011-02-06. Retrieved 2011-12-15. See drop-down essay on "The Third Republic and the 1905 Law of Laïcité"
  75. Bloy, Marjie (30 April 2002). "The Congress of Vienna, 1 November 1814 – 8 June 1815". The Victorian Web. Retrieved 2009-01-09.
  76. James J. Walsh (1913). "Louis Pasteur"  . In Herbermann, Charles (ed.). Catholic Encyclopedia . New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  77. Campbell, D. M. (January 1915). "The Pasteur Institute of Paris". American Journal of Veterinary Medicine. 10 (1). Chicago, Ill.: D. M. Campbell: 29–31.
  78. "Etymology of the English word neoclassicism". myetymology.com. Archived from the original on March 9, 2011. Retrieved 2012-02-22.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  79. Encyclopædia Britannica. "Romanticism. Retrieved 30 January 2008, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online". Britannica.com. Retrieved 2010-08-24.
  80. Casey, Christopher (October 30, 2008). ""Grecian Grandeurs and the Rude Wasting of Old Time": Britain, the Elgin Marbles, and Post-Revolutionary Hellenism". Foundations. Volume III, Number 1. Archived from the original on May 13, 2009. Retrieved 2009-06-25.
  81. David Levin, History as Romantic Art: Bancroft, Prescott, and Parkman (1967)
  82. Gerald Lee Gutek, A history of the Western educational experience (1987) ch. 12 on Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi
  83. Ashton Nichols, "Roaring Alligators and Burning Tygers: Poetry and Science from William Bartram to Charles Darwin," Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 2005 149(3): 304–315
  84. McKay, John P.; Hill, Bennett D.; Buckler, John; Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Beck, Roger B.; Crowston, Clare Haru; Wiesner-Hanks, Merry E. A History of World Societies: From 1775 to Present . Eighth edition. Volume C – From 1775 to the Present. (2009). Bedford/St. Martin's Archived 2011-02-25 at the Wayback Machine : Boston/New York. ISBN   978-0-312-68298-9. ISBN   0-312-68298-0. "By 1883 Europe had caught 'African fever,' and the race for territory was on." (McKay 738).
  85. R, Robinson, J.Gallagher and A. Denny, Africa and the Victorians, London, 1965, Page. 175.
  86. Kevin Shillington, History of Africa: Revised Second Edition, (New York: Macmillan Publishers Limited, 2005), 301
  87. Keswick, Maggie; Weatherall, Clara (2008). The thistle and the jade:a celebration of 175 years of Jardine Matheson. Francis Lincoln Publishing. ISBN   978-0-7112-2830-6. p.78 Online version at Google books
  88. Patricia Buckley Ebrey, Anne Walthill James B. Palais., East Asia (Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), pp.378–82.
  89. Taithe, Bertrand (2001). Citizenship and Wars: France in Turmoil 1056–1871. Routledge.
  90. Constitution Act, 1867 , 30 & 31 Victoria, c. 3 (U.K.), R.S.C. 1985, App. II, No. 11.
  91. "Covenant of the League of Nations". The Avalon Project. Retrieved 30 August 2011.
  92. See Article 23, "Covenant of the League of Nations"., "Treaty of Versailles". and Minority Rights Treaties.
  93. John A. Garraty, The Great Depression (1986)
  94. Charles Duhigg, "Depression, You Say? Check Those Safety Nets", New York Times, March 23, 2008
  95. "Homepage of Vatican City State". Vaticanstate.va. Archived from the original on 2 November 2010. Retrieved 15 October 2010.
  96. "Stato della Città del Vaticano" is the name used in the state's founding document, the Treaty between the Holy See and Italy Archived 2012-03-09 at the Wayback Machine , article 26.
  97. "Holy See (Vatican City)". CIA—The World Factbook. Retrieved 9 July 2011.
  98. "Vatican City State". Vatican City Government. Archived from the original on 28 November 2007. Retrieved 28 November 2007.
  99. "Battle of Britain 1940." Archived 2008-06-03 at the Wayback Machine Battle of Britain. Retrieved: 28 June 2010.
  100. "Audio Clip of Churchill's speech." UK: BBC. Retrieved: 28 June 2010.
  101. FDR Pearl Harbor Speech. December 8, 1941. Retrieved 2011-02-05. December 7th, 1941, a day that will live in infamy.
  102. Williamson Murray; Allan Reed Millett (2009). A War To Be Won: fighting the Second World War. Harvard University Press. p. 143. ISBN   978-0-674-04130-1.
  103. Digger History Sandakan Death March: Japanese Inhumanity
  104. "Battle of Midway: June 4–7,1942". Naval History & Heritage Command. 27 April 2005. Retrieved 20 February 2009. "...considered the decisive battle of the war in the Pacific."
  105. Dull, Paul S (2007). Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy, 1941–1945. US Naval Institute Press. ISBN   978-1-59114-219-5. "Midway was indeed "the" decisive battle of the war in the Pacific.", p. 166
  106. "A Brief History of Aircraft Carriers: Battle of Midway". U.S. Navy. 2007. Archived from the original on 12 June 2007. Retrieved 12 June 2007.
  107. U.S. Naval War College Analysis, p.1; Parshall and Tully, Shattered Sword, pp.416–430.
  108. Keegan, John. "The Second World War." New York: Penguin, 2005. (275)
  109. 1 2 "Holocaust," Encyclopædia Britannica, 2009: "the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women and children, and millions of others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Nazis called this "the final solution to the Jewish question ..."
  110. The word is only marginally found in Greek [Classical] literature referring in general to an offering. The adjective ὁλόκαυστος "holókaustos, "wholly burned", more common in the parallel form ὁλόκαυτος [holókautos], is in the Greek version of the Hebrew Bible used in Leviticus 6,21–22 in the following context: "[...] the baked pieces of the grain offering you shall offer for a sweet aroma to the Lord. / The priest [...] shall offer it. It is a statute for ever to the Lord. It shall be wholly burned)."
  111. Niewyk, Donald L. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust, Columbia University Press, 2000, p.45: "The Holocaust is commonly defined as the murder of more than 5,000,000 Jews by the Germans in World War II." Also see "The Holocaust", Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007: "the systematic state-sponsored killing of six million Jewish men, women and children, and millions of others, by Nazi Germany and its collaborators during World War II. The Germans called this "the final solution to the Jewish question".
  112. "Brian Levin, Director, Center for the Study of Hate and Extremism, California State University". Huffingtonpost.com. July 26, 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
  113. Sonja M. Hedgepeth; Rochelle G. Saidel (14 December 2010). Sexual violence against Jewish women during the Holocaust. UPNE. p. 16. ISBN   978-1-58465-905-1. If two million Jewish women were murdered during the Holocaust, sexual molestation was the lot of a few but violence was the lot of the many.
  114. Stephanie Fitzgerald (1 January 2011). Children of the Holocaust. Capstone Press. p. 4. ISBN   978-0-7565-4390-7. More than a million Jewish children were killed.
  115. Gay, Kathlyn. [2008] (2008). 21st Century Books. Mao Zedong's China. ISBN   0-8225-7285-0. pg 7
  116. Hutchings, Graham. [2001] (2001). Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change. Harvard University Press. ISBN   0-674-00658-5.
  117. "Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings". UNdata. 26 April 2011. Archived from the original on 13 July 2011. Retrieved 13 July 2011.
  118. détente - traduction - Dictionnaire Français-Anglais
  119. See various uses of this term in the following publications. The term is a play on a more widely used term for 1848 revolutions, the Spring of Nations. Also Polish term Jesień Ludów or Jesień Narodów in in Polish-language publications.
  120. "United States Department of Justice - Voting Rights Act of 1965". U.S. Department of Justice. 2006-03-20. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
  121. "The Voting Rights Act of 1965". United States Department of Justice. Archived from the original on 2010-12-06. Retrieved 2008-08-29.
  122. Moloney, Ed (2002). A Secret History of the IRA. Penguin Books. p. 246. ISBN   0-14-101041-X.
  123. The Provisional IRA by Patrick Bishop and Eamonn Mallie ( ISBN   0-552-13337-X), p. 117.
  124. Henry McDonald (13 February 2005). "Grieving sisters square up to IRA". The Observer. London. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
  125. Moloney, p. 707
  126. (in Spanish) Goiz Argi Archived 2019-01-15 at the Wayback Machine . Goiz Argi. Retrieved on 30 January 2011.
  127. (in Spanish) Goiz Argi Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine . Goiz Argi (27 January 2002). Retrieved on 30 January 2011.
  128. "Basque separatist group Eta 'declares ceasefire'". BBC News. 5 September 2010. Retrieved 5 September 2010.
  129. "Basque group Eta says armed campaign is over". BBC News. 20 October 2011. Retrieved 20 October 2011.
  130. Today the largely rewritten treaty continues in force as the Treaty on the functioning of the European Union, as renamed by the Lisbon Treaty.
  131. Burgess, Michael (2000). Federalism and European union: The building of Europe, 1950–2000. Routledge. p. 49. ISBN   0-415-22647-3. Our theoretical analysis suggests that the EC/EU is neither a federation nor a confederation in the classical sense. But it does claim that the European political and economic elites have shaped and moulded the EC/EU into a new form of international organization, namely, a species of "new" confederation.
  132. Kiljunen, Kimmo (2004). The European Constitution in the Making. Centre for European Policy Studies. pp. 21–26. ISBN   978-92-9079-493-6.
  133. "European". Oxford English Dictionary. Retrieved 3 October 2011. 5 b. spec. Designating a developing series of economic and political unions between certain countries of Europe from 1952 onwards, as European Economic Community, European Community, European Union.
  134. Faculty of Catholic University of America, ed. (1967). "Vatican Council II". New Catholic Encyclopedia . Vol. XIV (1 ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 563. OCLC   34184550.
  135. Alberigo, Giuseppe; Sherry, Matthew (2006). A Brief History of Vatican II. Maryknoll: Orbis Books. p. 69. ISBN   1-57075-638-4.
  136. Hirsch, E.D. (1993). The Dictionary of Cultural Literacy. Houghton Mifflin. ISBN   978-0-395-65597-9. p 419. "Members of a cultural protest that began in the U.S. in the 1960s and affected Europe before fading in the 1970s...fundamentally a cultural rather than a political protest."
  137. "Rockin' At the Red Dog: The Dawn of Psychedelic Rock," Mary Works Covington, 2005.
  138. Anderson, Terry H. (1995). The Movement and the Sixties . Oxford University Press. ISBN   978-0-19-510457-8.
  139. Davies, N, 'Europe: A History', (Pimlico:London,1997) p.812
  140. Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, "Conservatism", Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, Third Edition, "Sometimes it (conservatism) has been outright opposition, based on an existing model of society that is considered right for all time. It can take a 'reactionary' form, harking back to, and attempting to reconstruct, forms of society which existed in an earlier period.", Oxford University Press, 2009, ISBN   978-0-19-920516-5
  141. "Conservatism (political philosophy)". Britannica.com. 10 April 2024. Retrieved on 1 November 2009.
  142. Carol Hamilton (2007-12-09). "The Scary Echo of the Intolerance of the French Revolution in America Today". Hnn.us. Retrieved 2012-05-25.
  143. "Stokely Carmichael and Pan-Africanism: Back to Black Power", Journal of Politics, Vol. 35, No.2 (May, 1973), pp 386-409.
  144. "The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, Report of an inquiry by Sir William MacPherson of Cluny (The MacPherson Report): Chapter 6". The Stationery Office. February 1999. Retrieved 6 January 2011.
  145. Malanczuk, P. (1999). "The Relevance of International Economic Law and the World Trade Organisation (WTO) for Commercial Outer Space Activities". International Organisations and Space Law. 442: 305. Bibcode:1999ESASP.442..305M. ISBN   9290927682.
  146. Understanding the WTO Handbook at WTO official website. (Note that the document's printed folio numbers do not match the pdf page numbers.)
  147. "ANC Party Declaration". the African National Congress. Archived from the original on September 7, 2008. Retrieved 15 May 2008.
  148. "New World Trade Center climbs to 100 stories". Associated Press. April 2, 2012.
  149. "CNN Transcript from 4 April 2005" . Retrieved 2008-03-04.
  150. Bergen 2006 , p. 75.
  151. United States v. Usama bin Laden et al., S (7) 98Cr.1023 , Testimony of Jamal Ahmed Mohamed al-Fadl( S.D.N.Y. February 6, 2001).
  152. Data assembled from David Womersley, ed., Edward Gibbon - The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, vol. 1 (London: Allen Lane, 1994), pp. cvii, 1084, 1106; and Norton, Biblio, 36-63. Norton reported that reliable figures on printed copies of all editions and volumes "cannot, unfortunately, be stated." p. 52. Precise days of publication from Norton, Biblio, except where otherwise noted.

Works cited

Shotwell, James Thomson (1911). "History"  . Encyclopædia Britannica . Vol. 13 (11th ed.). pp. 527–533.