- S. canadensis branches and inflorescence
- Inflorescence of S. canadensis
- Flowers of S. nigra
Sambucus | |
---|---|
Sambucus berries (elderberries) | |
Scientific classification | |
Kingdom: | Plantae |
Clade: | Tracheophytes |
Clade: | Angiosperms |
Clade: | Eudicots |
Clade: | Asterids |
Order: | Dipsacales |
Family: | Adoxaceae |
Genus: | Sambucus L. [1] |
Species | |
Sambucus is a genus of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae. The various species are commonly referred to as elder, elderflower or elderberry.
The oppositely arranged leaves are pinnate with 5–9 leaflets (or, rarely, 3 or 11). Each leaf is 5–30 centimetres (2–12 in) long, and the leaflets have serrated margins. They bear large clusters of small white or cream-colored flowers in late spring; these are followed by clusters of small black, blue-black, or red berries (rarely yellow or white).
Sambucus fruit is rich in anthocyanidins [3] that combine to give elderberry juice an intense blue-purple coloration that turns reddish on dilution with water. [4]
The taxonomy of the genus SambucusL., originally described by Carl Linnaeus and hence its botanical authority, has been complicated by its wide geographical distribution and morphological diversity. This has led to overdescription of the species and infraspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties or forms). [5]
The genus was formerly placed in the honeysuckle family, Caprifoliaceae, but was reclassified as Adoxaceae due to genetic and morphological comparisons to plants in the genus Adoxa .
Species recognized in this genus are: [6] [7]
The name comes from the Ancient Greek word σαμβύκη (sambū́kē), an ancient wind instrument, about the removal of pith from the twigs to make whistles. [8]
The genus occurs in temperate to subtropical regions of the world. More widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, its Southern Hemisphere occurrence is restricted to parts of Australasia and South America. Many species are widely cultivated for their ornamental leaves, flowers, and fruit. [9]
Elder commonly grows near farms and homesteads. It is a nitrogen-dependent plant and thus is generally found near places of organic waste disposal. Elders are often grown as a hedgerow plant in Britain since they take very fast, can be bent into shape easily, and grow quite profusely, thus having gained the reputation of being 'an instant hedge'. It is not generally affected by soil type or pH level and will virtually grow anywhere sufficient sunlight is available.
S. callicarpa berries are consumed by birds and mammals. [10] In Northern California, elderberries are eaten by migrating band-tailed pigeons. Elders are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including brown-tail, buff ermine, dot moth, emperor moth, engrailed moth, swallow-tailed moth and the V-pug . The crushed foliage and immature fruit have a strong fetid smell. Valley elderberry longhorn beetles in California are very often found around red or blue elderberry bushes. Females lay their eggs on the bark. [11] Strong-scented flowers in wild populations of European elder (S. nigra) attract numerous, minute flower thrips which may contribute to the transfer of pollen between inflorescences. [12]
Traditional uses of Sambucus involved berries, seeds, leaves, and flowers or component extracts. [13] Ornamental varieties of Sambucus are grown in gardens for their showy flowers, fruits and lacy foliage which support habitat for wildlife. [14] Of the many native species, three are used as ornamentals: S. canadensis , S. nigra , and S. racemosa . [15]
The uncooked berries and other parts of plants from this genus are poisonous. [16] [10] Leaves, twigs, branches, seeds, roots, flowers, and berries of Sambucus plants produce cyanogenic glycosides, which have toxic properties. [16] Ingesting a sufficient quantity of cyanogenic glycosides from berry juice, flower tea, or beverages made from fresh leaves, branches, and fruit has been shown to cause illness, including nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, and weakness. [17] [16] [18] In August 1983, a group of 25 people in Monterey County, California, became ill after ingesting elderberry juice pressed from fresh, uncooked S. mexicana berries, leaves, and stems. [18] The concentration of cyanogenic glycosides is higher in tea made from flowers (or leaves) than from the berries. [16] [19]
The seeds of S. callicarpa are reported to be poisonous and may cause vomiting or diarrhea. [10]
Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz) | |
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Energy | 305 kJ (73 kcal) |
18.4 g | |
Dietary fiber | 7 g |
0.5 g | |
0.66 g | |
Vitamins | Quantity %DV† |
Vitamin A equiv. | 3% 30 μg |
Thiamine (B1) | 6% 0.07 mg |
Riboflavin (B2) | 5% 0.06 mg |
Niacin (B3) | 3% 0.5 mg |
Pantothenic acid (B5) | 3% 0.14 mg |
Vitamin B6 | 14% 0.23 mg |
Folate (B9) | 2% 6 μg |
Vitamin C | 40% 36 mg |
Minerals | Quantity %DV† |
Calcium | 3% 38 mg |
Iron | 9% 1.6 mg |
Magnesium | 1% 5 mg |
Phosphorus | 3% 39 mg |
Potassium | 9% 280 mg |
Zinc | 1% 0.11 mg |
Other constituents | Quantity |
Water | 79.80 g |
†Percentages estimated using US recommendations for adults, [20] except for potassium, which is estimated based on expert recommendation from the National Academies. [21] |
The cooked berries (pulp and skin) of most species of Sambucus are edible. [17] [22]
Raw elderberries are 80% water, 18% carbohydrates, and less than 1% each of protein and fat. In a 100-gram (3+1⁄2 oz) amount, elderberries supply 305 kilojoules (73 kcal) of food energy and are a rich source of vitamin C, providing 43% of the Daily Value (DV). Elderberries also have moderate contents of vitamin B6 (18% DV) and iron (12% DV), with no other nutrients in significant content.
Elderberry fruit or flowers are used as dietary supplements to prevent or provide relief from minor diseases, such as flu, colds, constipation, and other conditions, served as a tea, extract or in a capsule. [17] The use of elderberry supplements increased early in the COVID-19 pandemic. [23] There is insufficient research to establish its effectiveness for such uses, or its safety profile. [17] The raw or unripe fruit of S. nigra or its extracts may contain a cyanogenic glycoside that is potentially toxic. [23]
Although practitioners of traditional medicine have used elderberry over centuries, [14] there is little high-quality clinical evidence that such practices provide benefits, though the US National Institutes of Health have stated that "some preliminary research suggests that elderberry may relieve symptoms of flu or other upper respiratory infections." [17]
The pigments are used as colorants in various products, [3] and "elderberry juice color" is listed by the US Food and Drug Administration as allowable in certified organic food products. [3] In Japan, elderberry juice is listed as an approved "natural color additive" under the Food and Sanitation Law. [24] Fibers can be dyed with elderberry juice (using alum as a mordant) to give a "muted purple" shade. [25] [26]
The berry of S. callicarpa can be made into wine. [10] The flowers of S. nigra are used to produce elderflower cordial. St-Germain, a French liqueur, is made from elderflowers. Hallands Fläder, a Swedish akvavit, is flavoured with elderflowers.
Hollowed elderberry twigs have traditionally been used as spiles to tap maple trees for syrup. [27] Additionally, they have been hollowed out and used as flutes, blowguns, and syringes. [28] In addition, the elderberry twigs and fruit are employed in creating dyes for basketry. These stems are dyed a very deep black by soaking them in a wash made from the berry stems of the elderberry. [14]
The pith of elder has been used by watchmakers for cleaning tools before intricate work. [29]
Folklore related to elder trees is extensive and can vary according to region. [30] In some traditions, the elder tree is thought to ward off evil and give protection from witches, while other beliefs say that witches often congregate under the plant, especially when it is full of fruit. [31] If an elder tree was cut down, a spirit known as the Elder Mother would be released and take her revenge. [32] The tree could only safely be cut while chanting a rhyme to the Elder Mother. [33] Romani people believe burning elder wood brings bad luck. [34]
A wand made from the branch of an elder tree plays a pivotal role in the final book of the Harry Potter series, which was almost named Harry Potter and the Elder Wand. [35] [36]
A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit, although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the culinary sense are strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, white currants, blackcurrants, and redcurrants. In Britain, soft fruit is a horticultural term for such fruits.
Morus, a genus of flowering plants in the family Moraceae, consists of diverse species of deciduous trees commonly known as mulberries, growing wild and under cultivation in many temperate world regions. Generally, the genus has 64 subordinate taxa, three of which are well-known and are ostensibly named for the fruit color of the best-known cultivar: white, red, and black mulberry, with numerous cultivars and some taxa currently unchecked and awaiting taxonomic scrutiny. M. alba is native to South Asia, but is widely distributed across Europe, Southern Africa, South America, and North America. M. alba is also the species most preferred by the silkworm, and is regarded as an invasive species in Brazil and the United States.
The Caprifoliaceae or honeysuckle family is a clade of dicotyledonous flowering plants consisting of about 860 species, in 33, to 42 genera, with a nearly cosmopolitan distribution. Centres of diversity are found in eastern North America and eastern Asia, while they are absent in tropical and southern Africa.
Passiflora edulis, commonly known as passion fruit, is a vine species of passion flower native to southern Brazil and Peru. It is cultivated commercially in tropical and subtropical areas for its sweet, seedy fruit. The fruit is a pepo, a type of berry, round to oval, either yellow or dark purple at maturity, with a soft to firm, juicy interior filled with numerous seeds. The fruit is both eaten and juiced, with the juice often added to other fruit juices to enhance aroma.
Pyracantha is a genus of large, thorny evergreen shrubs in the family Rosaceae, with common names firethorn or pyracantha. They are native to an area extending from Southwest Europe east to Southeast Asia. They resemble and are related to Cotoneaster, but have serrated leaf margins and numerous thorns.
The loquat, called biwa in Japan, is a large evergreen shrub or tree grown commercially for its orange fruit and for its leaves, which are used to make herbal tea. It is also cultivated as an ornamental plant.
Aronia is a genus of deciduous shrubs, the chokeberries, in the family Rosaceae native to eastern North America and most commonly found in wet woods and swamps. The genus Aronia is considered to have 3 species. The most common and widely used is Aronia melanocarpa which emerged from Eastern North America. The lesser known Aronia arbutifolia and the hybrid form of the abovementioned species called Aronia prunifolia were first cultivated in Central and Eastern North America. In the eighteenth century, the first shrubs of the best-known species Aronia melanocarpa reached Europe where they were first cultivated in Scandinavia and Russia.
Adoxaceae, commonly known as moschatel family, is a small family of flowering plants in the order Dipsacales, now consisting of five genera and about 150–200 species. They are characterised by opposite toothed leaves, small five- or, more rarely, four-petalled flowers in cymose inflorescences, and the fruit being a drupe. They are thus similar to many Cornaceae.
Sambucus ebulus, also known as danewort, dane weed, danesblood, dwarf elder or European dwarf elder, walewort, dwarf elderberry, elderwort and blood hilder, is a herbaceous species of elder, native to southern and central Europe and southwest Asia. The species is a well-established archaeophyte in much of the UK, and is also reportedly naturalized in parts of North America.
Sambucus canadensis, the American black elderberry, Canada elderberry, or common elderberry, is a species of elderberry native to a large area of North America east of the Rocky Mountains, south to Bolivia. It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry soils, primarily in sunny locations.
Sambucus nigra is a species complex of flowering plants in the family Adoxaceae native to most of Europe. Common names include elder, elderberry, black elder, European elder, European elderberry, and European black elderberry. It grows in a variety of conditions including both wet and dry fertile soils, primarily in sunny locations. The plant is widely grown as an ornamental shrub or small tree. Both the flowers and the berries have a long tradition of culinary use, primarily for cordial and wine.
Elderflower cordial is a soft drink made largely from a refined sugar and water solution and uses the flowers of the European elder. Historically, the cordial was popular in Northwestern Europe where it has a Victorian heritage. However, versions of an elderflower cordial recipe can be traced to Roman times. In the 21st century, it is consumed in many countries of Europe where people still make it in the traditional way. In some countries, the drink can be found as an aromatic syrup, sold as a concentrated squash that is mixed with still or sparkling water. Elderflower pressé is a premixed form of this.
Sambucus racemosa is a species of elderberry known by the common names red elderberry and red-berried elder.
Sambucus gaudichaudiana, commonly known as white elderberry, is a species of flowering plant in the family Adoxaceae and is endemic to eastern Australia. It is a perennial shrub but with stems that are produced annually with pinnate leaves that have three to eleven leaflets, small white flowers and small but edible fruit. It grows in cool forest and shady gorges.
Sambucus australasica, commonly known as yellow elderberry, native elderberry or native elder, is a species of flowering plant in the family Adoxaceae and is endemic to eastern Australia. It is a shrub or small tree with pinnate leaves that have coarse teeth on their edges, small white flowers with three petals, and yellow fruit. It is usually found in and on the edges of rainforest.
Sambucus cerulea or Sambucus nigra ssp. cerulea, with the common names blue elderberry and blue elder, is a coarse textured shrub species of elder in the family Adoxaceae.
Sambucus pubens, the American red elder, is a species of elder (Sambucus) native to eastern North America. The inflorescence is a rounded panicle, making the plant easy to distinguish from the more common S. canadensis, which has a more open, flattened corymb. Some authors have considered S. pubens to be conspecific with S. racemosa L.
Elderflower pressé is a sweetened, carbonated soft drink. It is made from elderflowers, the flowers of the European elderberry, Sambucus nigra, which are also used to make elderflower cordial, or a synthetic equivalent. Other ingredients will include lemons and sweetener.
The passion fruit is the fruit of a number of plants in the genus Passiflora.
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