After Serbia successfully resisted Austria-Hungary's advances during the Serbian campaign of 1914, the Central Powers launched a joint offensive against Serbia with a combined force of over 600,000 soldiers. They enjoyed numerical and technological superiority over the Serbian army, which was heavily outnumbered and lacked adequate supplies and equipment.
The campaign began with a series of coordinated offensives aimed at breaking through Serbian defensive lines. The Serbian army, led by King Peter I and Field Marshal Radomir Putnik, fought valiantly but was ultimately overwhelmed by the Central Powers' forces, with German and Austro-Hungarian forces attacking from the north while Bulgarian troops attacked from the east. The Serbian army, along with a significant number of civilians, embarked on a retreat across the Albanian mountains, suffering heavy casualties from combat, disease, and harsh weather, the retreat became known as the Great Retreat or the "Albanian Golgotha."
By the end of the Serbian campaign of 1915, the Central Powers had effectively eliminated Serbia as a threat, secured their position in the region and opened up a land route to provide supplies to the embattled Ottoman Empire. Serbia was then divided between the Austro-Hungarian occupied zone and the Bulgarian occupied zone. The Serbian government, along with the remnants of its army, evacuated to the Greek island of Corfu, where they regrouped and later played a crucial role in the ultimate Allied victory in the war.[13]
Regarding the Kingdom of Serbia as a threat to their territorial integrity and the stability of their multi-ethnic empire, Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914, following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Bosnian-Serb nationalist. This triggered a series of alliances and escalations among European powers, ultimately leading to the outbreak of World War I.[14]
In August 1914, Austria-Hungary launched an invasion of Serbia. Against all odds, the Serbian army, led by General Radomir Putnik managed to repel multiple offensives from a much larger and better-equipped enemy. The Serbian campaign of 1914 ended late on 14 December with a victory for Serbia. The Austro-Hungarians suffered heavy casualties with over 224,000 dead, wounded or prisoner[15] and were unable to achieve their objectives but the victory also brought heavy losses to the Serbian army with 170,000 casualties a much higher percentage for the small kingdom, making further offensive operations impossible.[16]
Prelude
In early 1915, following Ottoman defeats at the Battle of Sarikamish and during the First Suez Offensive, German Chief of the General Staff Erich von Falkenhayn attempted to persuade Austro-Hungarian Chief of Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf about the strategic importance of capturing Serbia. The rationale behind this proposition was to establish a direct rail connection from Germany through Austria-Hungary, ultimately reaching Istanbul and beyond. This proposed rail link would facilitate the transportation of military resources, and potentially troops, to support the Ottoman Empire.
Russia posed a significant threat as an adversary, and the entry of Italy into the war on the side of the Allies further complicated the challenges faced by the Austro-Hungarian forces. On 8 September 1915, Erich von Falkenhayn and Franz Conrad von Hötzendorf signed a military convention in Pless. The conference called for an immediate attack on Serbia.[17]
Both the Allies and the Central Powers attempted to persuade Bulgaria to align with their respective sides. Bulgaria and Serbia had a history of conflict, having engaged in two wars in the previous three decades: the Serbo-Bulgarian War in 1885 and the Second Balkan War in 1913. By aligning with the Central Powers, Bulgaria was promised not only disputed lands from Serbia but also additional territories in Macedonia and Thrace; in addition Germany and Austria-Hungary, offered Bulgaria military and economic support. Following the Allied defeat in the Gallipoli campaign and the Russian setback at Gorlice, Tsar Ferdinand of Bulgaria signed a treaty with Germany and on 23 September 1915 started mobilisation for war.[18] During the preceding nine months, the Serbs had tried and failed to rebuild their battered armies and improve their supply situation.
Opposing forces
Austro-Hungarian river boat on the Danube and Sava with Kalemegdan fortress during Austrian attack in 1915
Despite their efforts, the Serbian army was only about 30,000 men stronger than at the start of the war (around 225,000) and was still poorly equipped. The first Serbian Campaign had taken the lives of 100,000 soldiers and had been followed by an epidemic of typhus caused by the sick and wounded left behind by the Austro-Hungarians. The disease claimed the lives of another 135,000 Serbs.[19]
The Serbian army was commanded by Voivode Radomir Putnik who had defeated the Austro-Hungarians in 1914, Putnik's main commanders were Voivode Živojin Mišić leading the Serbian First Army, Voivode Stepa Stepanović commander of the Second Army while the Serbian Third Army was under Pavle Jurišić Šturm.[20] The Serbian army had about 780 guns, most of them heavy, the Serbians were forced to spread their forces by the entry of Bulgaria on the side of the Central powers.[21] The commander (Serdar) of the Montenegrin forces was Janko Vukotić.[22]
Commander-in-Chief: Crown Prince Alexander Crown Prince’s Chief of Staff: Radomir Putnik Assistant to Chief of Staff: Zivko Pavlovic
NORTHERN & WESTERN FRONTS
I Army (HQ Valjevo) At the front: village of Ostružnica-Užće Drina-Visegrad Cmdr: Zivojin Misic, Ch Staff: Stevan Hadzic
Drinsk (Drina) Division II Call (HQ Obrenovna) At the front: Ostružnica-village of Ušće Cmdr: Krsta Smiljanic, Ch Staff: Milan Zavadil Composition: 4th, 5th & 6th Regiments II Call Drinsk cavalry division of 2 squadrons 1 division Drinsk Artillery Regiment (3 batteries) 3rd Drinsk Position Battery (with De Bange guns) 4th division captured guns (2 batteries) 2 long 12 cm guns Total: 12 battalions; 28 guns; 12 MG; 2 squadrons
Dunavsk (Danube) Division II Call (HQ Vladimirci) At the front: The village of Ušće-mouth of the Jadra River Cmdr: Milos Vasic; Ch staff Milan Uskokovic Composition: 7th Regiment I Call 8th & 9th Regiments II Call 3 quick firing batteries (12 guns) 2nd Position Battery (6 guns) 1 Danglis mountain battery (4 guns) Danube cavalry division (2 squadrons) Total: 12 battalions, 12 MG, 22 guns, 2 squadrons
Sokolsk Brigade (HQ Uzice) From the mouth of the Jadra River from (to?) the Trešnjica River Cmdr: Djordje Djordjevic Composition: 5th & 6th Regiments III Call 3rd, 4th & 5th Position Batteries 1 mounted squad Total: 8 battalions, 18 guns
Uzice Detachment (HQ Uzice) From the mouth of the Trešnjica River to the Dima bend Cmdr: Ivan Pavlovic Composition: 4th Cadre Regiment 4th Regiment III Call 2nd Supernumerary Regiment III Call Donjo Vasojević Brigade (3 battalions) 2 field De Bange batteries 2 mountain De Bange batteries 2 field Krupp batteries Total: 14 battalions, 26 guns
Moravsk (Morava) Division II Call (HQ moving towards Ub) Cmdr: Lubomir Milic; Ch Staff: Dan. Kalafatovic Parts of this division, which remained on the front from the mouth of the Jadr to the mouth of the Trešnjica, were replaced by the Sokol Brigade. By order of the commander of the 1st Army, this division was placed in the army reserve in the area of the original works at the Tamnava and Ub. Composition: 1st, 2nd & 3rd Regiments II Call 6 quick firing batteries Total: 12 battalions, 12 MG, 24 guns
Beograd (Belgrade) Detachment (HQ Torlak) On the front: from the Srednjak stream (east of Grocka) to the village of Ostpužnice Cmdr: Malutin Lazarevic Composition: 7th Regiment II Call 10th Cadre Regiment 7th, 11th & 15th Regiments III Call 6 field quick firing batteries 75 mm = 24 tubes 6 position slow firing batteries 80 mm = 24 tubes Howitzers 120 mm = 4 tubes Howitzers 150 mm – 2 tubes Anti-aircraft battery = 4 tubes English siege battery 220 mm = 8 tubes 2 Gruzunov guns in a turret 57 mm = 2 tubes All on permanent mounts: 1 Russian coastal battery 150 mm = 2 tubes 1 French coastal battery 140 mm = 3 tubes 2 Russian quick firing guns 75 mm = 2 tubes Total: 20 battalions, 75 guns, 2 squadrons
III Army (HQ Pozarevac) On the Front: stream Srednjak- Smederevo-Ram-Boljetinacka River (east of Golubac) Cmdr: Pavel Jurišić-Šturm, Ch Staff Dušan Pešik
Branishev Detachment (HQ Pozarevac) On the army front in the first line: Cmdr: Panta Grujic, Ch Staff Vladimir Belic Composition: 8th, 9th & combined Regiments III Call 3rd, 4th, 5th & 6th Position Batteries, Danube Division districts 5th & 6th Position Batteries, Timok Division districts Combined Position Battery Howitzer battery Platoon, 10th Howitzer Battery 150 mm Platoon, mountain quick firing battery City Battery, Skopje Detachment City Battery, Pirotsk Detachment Cavalry squadron III Call Total: 12 battalions, 44 guns, 1 squadron
Danube Division I Call (HQ Majilov) Division in army reserve in the vicinity of Majilov. Cmdr: Milivoje Andelkovic, Ch Staff Radoje Lasic Composition: 9th Regiment I Call 18th Regiment I Call 4th Supernumerary Regiment I Call 12th Cadre Regiment Cavalry regiment of 3 squadrons Danube Artillery Regiment (7 batteries) Total:16 battalions, 28 guns, 3 squadrons
Drina Division I Call (HQ Osipaonica) Division in army reserve in the vicinity of Osipaonica. Cmdr: Nikola Stevanovic, Ch Staff Pantelija Jurišić Composition: 5th Regiment I Call 6th Regiment I Call 3rd Supernumerary Regiment I Call Drina Artillery Regiment (9 batteries) Cavalry Regiment of 3 squadrons Total: 12 battalions, 36 guns, 3 squadrons
Krajina Detachment (HQ Petrovo selo) Cmdr: Dragutin Dimit, Ch Staff Bogoljub Ilic At the front: from Sip to the Boljetinska River Composition: 4th Regiment I Call “Stevan Nemanja” 13th Regiment III Call 14th Regiment III Call (3 battalions) 3rd Regiment III Call (2 battalions) 3 position batteries 1 quick firing battery 1 De Bange battery 2 captured field guns 10.5 cm 12 Russian guns 7.5 cm 3 guns 47 mm 2 muzzle loading guns Total: 13 battalions, 47 guns
At the Disposal of the Supreme Command
Timok Division II Call (HQ Sopot) Grouped on the front around Sopot. Cmdr: Mirko Milosavljevic, Ch Staff Radisav Krustić Composition: 13th, 14th & 15th Regiments II Call Cavalry division Timok Artillery Regiment Total: 12 battalions, 20 guns, 2 squadrons
EASTERN FRONT
Timok Troops (HQ Zajecar) At the front: from the mountains Micora-via St Nikola to the Timok River. Cmdr: Ilija Gojkovic, Ch Staff Dragutin Dimitrijevic
Negotin Detachment (HQ Mokranja) Cmdr: Dura Dokic, acting Ch Staff Petar Jurisic On the section from Tabanovacki Stream to the mouth of the Timok Composition: 8th Regiment I Call 1st Supernumerary Battalion, 13th Regiment III Call 1 battalion of Last Defense of the 13th Regimental district 1 cavalry platoon 1 quick firing battery of 4 guns 4th Timok Position Battery (6 guns) Total: 6 battalions, 10 guns, 1 cavalry platoon
Combined Division I Call (HQ Zajecar) Cmdr: Mihailo Rasic, Ch Staff Dusan Trifunovic On the section from Tri Caldenza [Three Wells] to Tabanovacki Stream. Composition: 1st, 2nd, 5th & 6th Supernumerary Regiments I Call 1 cavalry squadron 3rd Morava quick firing division Captured quick firing division (8 guns) 16 De Bange field guns 1 mountain De Bange battery 2nd Howitzer Battery Total: 16 battalions, 44 guns, 1 squadron
Sumadija Division II Call (HQ Kalna) Cmdr: Svetomir Matic, Ch Staff Dusan Simovic On the section from Repljanska Church to Markov’s Rock. Composition: 5th Cadre Regiment 10th Regiment II Call 11th Regiment II Call Sumadija Supernumerary Regiment II Call Cavalry division 3 field quick firing batteries 2 field De bange guns Total: 16 battalions, 22 guns 2 squadrons
Troops of the III Call Used as border security and as fortress garrisons. 1 combined battalion from the 14th Regimental District 1st battalion, 14th Regiment II Call 3rd Battalion of the Last Defense of the 14th Regimental District 1 squadron III Call Total: 4 battalions & 1 squadron
At the Disposal of the Timok Army in Zajecar 3rd & 4th Howitzer Batteries Model 1897 3rd City Siege battery Model 1897
II Army (HQ Pirot) At the front Midzor-Nisava-Dascani Kladenac. Cmdr: Stepan Stepanovic, Ch Staff Milan Gr. [father’s name] Milovanovic
Detachment on the Tumba Cmdr: Vl. Tukovic For defense in the direction of Dascani Kladenac to Vlasotince on the Tumba and Talambasu. Composition: 10th Regiment I Call (from the Sumadija Division I Call) 3rd Battalion, 3rd Regiment III Call 2 companies, 4th Battalion, 3rd Regiment III Call 1 field quick firing battery 1 platoon quick firing mountain artillery 4 De Bange guns Total: 5 ½ battalions, 10 guns
Morava Division I Call Cmdr: Stevan Milovanovic; Ch Staff Emilo Belic The section from the Mirgovic River to Nisava. Composition: 1st, 3rd & 16th Infantry Regiments I Call 19th Cadre Regiment 1st and 3nd divisions, Morava Artillery Regiment (6 batteries) Austrian captured howitzer battery (6 guns) 2 companies, 6th Position De Bange Battery (4 guns) Timok Cavalry Regiment I Call of 2 squadrons Total: 16 battalions, 2 squadrons, 38 guns
Timok Division I Call Cmdr: Vojislav Zivanovic, Ch Staff Petar Kosic On the section from Nisava to the mountain ridge Midzor-Grandma’s Tooth-Brestovac cuka. Composition: 13th, 14th, 15th & 20th Regiments I Call 4th Battalion, 2nd Regiment III Call 3rd Howitzer Quick Firing Battery 1st & 3rd divisions, Timok Artillery Regiment I Call (6 batteries) 1 platoon, 1st Mountain Howitzer Battery 1 mountain battery model 1897 (4 guns) Krupp mountain battery (4 guns) 3rd De Bange Battery, Pirot City Detachment (6 guns) Total: 17 battalions, 44 guns
Sumadija Division I Call Cmdr: Bozidar Terzic, Ch Staff Mih. Jovanovic In reserve near Pirot. Composition: 11th, 12th & 19th Infantry Regiments I Call Division cavalry Regiment Sumadija Field Artillery Regiment of 3 divisions Total: 12 battalions, 36 guns, 3 squadrons
Cavalry Division (HQ in the village of Rizani near Pirot) Cmdr: Branko Jovanovic, Ch Staff Antonija Antic Grouped in Nisava valley near Pirot Composition: 1st Brigade: 1st & 3rd Cavalry Regiments 2nd Brigade: 2nd & 4th Cavalry Regiments Division Horse Artillery of 2 batteries Total: 16 squadrons, 8 guns
Vlasina Detachment (HQ Surdulic) Cmdr: Milovan Plasina Secures the border from the source of the Gradska River to Patarica Composition: Volunteer Detachment (3 battalions) 17th Regiment I Call 1st Battalion, 2nd Regiment III Call 2nd Battalion, 1st Regiment III Call 5th Mountain Quick Firing Battery 2 field quick firing batteries from the Drina Field Artillery Regiment I Call 2 field De Bange guns Total: 9 battalions, 14 guns
Troops in the New Territory (HQ Skopje) Cmdr: Damiljan Popovic, Velibor Trabinjac Secures part of the border from Kozjac (on the border of Bitola & Bregalnica exclusively divisional districts) to Rujen exclusive; keeps crews to secure the railways from Gevgelija to Zelenikov and keeps crews to maintain order and peace on the railway sections. Composition: 21st, 8th, 12th & 24th Companies, Border Guard Troops 14th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 2nd Regiment I Call (4 battalions) 13th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 20th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 16th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 1st & 4th Battalions, 1st Regiment III Call 3 Conscript [обвезничке] companies 3rd, 6th & 9th Mountain Artillery Regiment I Call 1 French mountain battery (6 guns) 3rd Position Battery, Morava Division District 6th Position Battery, Sumadija Division District Totals: 18 battalions, 3 conscript companies, 5 (sic) companies border guards troops, 16 MG, 30 guns (8 mountain quick firing, 10 mountain slow firing, 12 field De Bange guns)
Krivopalanačka Detachment (HQ Krivoj Palanka) Cmdr: Lazar Belodedic (commander 12th Regiment II Call) Provides security for part of the border from Rujevo to Patarica exclusively. Composition: 25th Company, Border Guards Troops 1 conscript company 2 battalions, 3rd Regiment III Call 2 battalions, 12th Regiment III Call 12th Regiment II Call 18th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 4th Battery, Mountain Artillery Regiment I Call 2nd French mountain battery 4th & 5th De Bange Batteries (lacking 2 guns), Skopje Artillery Detachment 3rd Howitzer Battery 12 cm Krupp howitzers Total: 11 battalions, 1 company border guards troops, 5 MG, 24 guns (4 mountain quick firing, 6 mountain slow firing, 10 field De Bange, 4 howitzers 12 cm)
Prizren Detachment (HQ Ljum tower) Cmdr: Svetolik Dimitrijevic, Ch Staff M. Radosavljevic Secures the front: village of Lukinje (old Serbian-Montenegrin- Albanian border) – Dafa Prusit Dafa Kumuls Maja Mez-Zebja-Bjeska-Konajt. Composition: 9th, 10th & 11th Companies, Border Guard Troops 11th Cadre Regiment (3 battalions) 1st Battalion, 12th Regiment III Call 1 conscript company III Call Broadwell mountain battery Prizren Position Battery (6 guns) Platoon 5th Position Battery of Sumadija Division District Total: 3 guard companies, 5 battalions, 12 guns
Podrimski Detachment (HQ Debar) Cmdr: Milutin Miskovic, Ch Staff Grgur Ristic Secures the front Rungaja- Nanshenj-Mali Saint-Mali Dejce-Dafa Saj-Duskos-Dafa Bulciz Composition: 13th, 14th & 15th Companies, Guard Troops 3rd Cadre Regiment 3rd Mountain De Bange Battery II Call De Bange Position Battery 3 Guard companies, 3 battalions & 8 guns
Ohrid Detachment (HQ Tirana) Cmdr: Milutin Miskovic, Ch Staff Vojislav Minic Secures the front Prusaj-village of Lanana-village of Babru. Composition: 16th & 17th Companies, Guard troops 1st Cadre Regiment 6th Mountain De Bange Battery Total: 2 companies guard troops, 3 battalions, 4 guns
Against Serbia were the German Eleventh Army led by Generaloberst Max von Gallwitz,[24] the Austro-Hungarian Third Army commanded by General der Infanterie Hermann Kövess and the Bulgarian First Army under Generalleutnant Kliment Boyadzhiev (comprising the Sixth, Eighth, Ninth and First Divisions);[25] all under the supreme command of Field Marshal August von Mackensen.[26] In addition, the Bulgarian Second Army commanded by Georgi Todorov (comprising the Third and Seventh Divisions, a cavalry division and a group of volunteers),[25] which remained under the direct control of the Bulgarian high command, was deployed in Macedonia to block any advance by the entente forces from Salonika.[27]
Operations
River crossings and capture of Belgrade
Austro-Hungarian troops capture Belgrade on 9 October 1915.
On 5 October after extensive aerial reconnaissance, Austro-Hungarian artillery began to fire on Serbian guns and known defensive positions. On 6 October, the offensive was launched when German Eleventh Army (GE Eleventh Army) and Austro-Hungarian Third Army (AH Third Army), some 300,000 men strong, started advancing towards the Danube and the Drina and Sava rivers. That day Bulgarian troops started sporadic attacks across various border crossing with Serbia. Early on 7 October crossing of the Sava by Austro-Hungarian Third Army, including the German XXII Reserve Corps, began supported by monitors from the Imperial and Royal Danube Flotilla.[28]
Having sent the Timok Group and the Second Army to defend the Bulgarian border, Putnik could only oppose four divisions to the Austro-Hungarian and German invading forces.[29] On 8 October German troops managed to reach the south bank of the Sava, threatening the Serbian west flank and the north of Belgrade. That same day Austro-Hungarian troops entered Belgrade, hard hand to hand fighting ensued.[30] Facing overwhelming artillery superiority, Serbian forces were forced back; during the night of 8–9 October General Mihailo Živković gave up the capital, pulling the Defence of Belgrade Group out to position south where it joined with the 2nd Timok Division.[31]
On 9 October Belgrade was occupied by Austro-Hungarian Third Army while German Eleventh Army had crossed the Danube with the III Corps at Smederevo and with the X Corps at Ram, successfully establishing two bridgeheads to serve as base for further operations.[32]
Bulgaria joins the invasion
Punch view of Bulgaria stabbing Serbia in the back whilst the country is being invaded by Germany and Austria-Hungary
On 11 October, having mobilised but without a declaration of war, Bulgaria started border attacks into Serbia.[33] On 14 October, Bulgaria officially declared war; General Kliment Boyadzhiev's Bulgarian First Army, under German orders, was to advance on Niš, the temporary capital of the Serbian government and link with German Eleventh Army;[34] the Bulgarian Second Army under General Georgi Todorov was to proceed into Macedonia, to sever the rail line between Niš and Salonika[25] and thus prevent Allied relief forces and ammunitions from reaching the Serbs.[27]
The Bulgarian First Army first made quick progress as the Serbs had moved troops north and the border units were of "low quality" but was stopped by the Serbian Second Army which made the German general staff request reinforcements, resulting in the German Alpine Corps brought in from the French front, as well as the Austro-Hungarian 10th Mountain Brigade.[35] In the south, the Bulgarian Second Army could not be stopped and managed to sever the train line on 16 October then reach the Vardar River on 19, Kumanovo on 20, Skopje on 22 and capturing the strategic Kačanik gorge on 26 October forcing the Serbians to retreat again. As a result Serbian General Damjan Popović, commander of the New Territories, was replaced by Petar Bojović.[36] On 25 October units of First Army captured Negotin and connected with German Eleventh Army. Facing encirclement from German and Austro- Hungarian troops only 6 miles from Kragujevac and Bulgarians 15 miles to the east near Niš, the Serbs only hope was to fight its way south to link up with Allies forces.[37]
Allies breakthrough attempts
After Greece chose to remain neutral, despite the terms of the treaty of alliance with Serbia, the Allies agreed to send a force to support the Serbs. After much delays imposed by Greece, the French 156th Division and the British 10th Division arrived in Salonika from Gallipoli early October. Under the command of French General Maurice Sarrail, two French divisions marched north towards Serbia, with the goal was of liberating Skopje, occupied by the Bulgarians.[38]
The French government and the War Office in London were both hesitant to advance too deep into Serbia, but Sarrail continued up the Vardar. This advance provided some limited assistance to the retreating Serbian army, as the Bulgarians had to concentrate larger forces on their southern flank to deal with the threat, which led to the Battle of Krivolak. The French and British soldiers, moving up in two columns on both sides of the Vardar River into Serbian Macedonia, comprised a total force of 60,000 men. They were stopped and forced to retreat after clashing with the leading elements of the Bulgarian Second Army.[39]
In a similar fashion, on December 7, at the Battle of Kosturino, the Second Army attacked the British 10th (Irish) Infantry Division, veterans of the Gallipoli campaign in poor physical condition, forcing it to retreat into Salonika by 12 December.[39][38]The German High Command refused Bulgarian demands to advance into Greece.[38]
Kragujevac
On October 31, 1915, Mackensen launched an attack intended to decisively defeat the Serbian Army at Kragujevac via encirclement. Facing the oncoming German III Corps, Austro-Hungarian units to the west, and the Bulgarian 9th Infantry Division blocking the southern route through Niš, the Serbian army abandoned Kragujevac without a fight. They retreated into the mountains followed by large groups of civilians, escaping the trap, and leaving only rearguards to slow down the oncoming enemies. On 5 November, the Bulgarian 9th Infantry Division successfully established contact with the German Eleventh Army. On November 6, the Forty-Third Reserve Infantry Division secured the area south of Kraljevo. This allowed the Central Powers access to the Ibar River valley.[40]
Field Marshal Mackensen ordered a pursuit by the Bulgarians southwest toward Pristina, however, the First Army encountered challenges in crossing the West and South Morava Rivers. On 10 November the Bulgarian First Division managed to cross the South Morava at Leskovac, but a Serbian force consisting of the Timok I, Šumadija II, and Morava II Divisions launched a surprise counterattack driving the Bulgarians back. The Serbians continued their retreat toward Pristina while enemy aerial reconnaissance followed their movements.[41]
The Germans pursued the Serbian forces with the X Reserve Corps, including the 107th Infantry Division, which had to navigate difficult terrain and mountain passes, on 13 November they were able to secure the passes against the Serbian Drina II Division. As the Central Powers advanced, the Serbian army managed to maintain its organisational integrity and hold off their pursuers despite the loss of key cities. The Serbian forces reached Pristina and Kosovo ahead of their pursuers and chose to continue retreating towards Prizren, escaping the enemy's attempts to encircle them.[42] On 20 November, Nikola Pašić sent a message asking the Allies for supplies to be sent to Adriatic ports. On 23 November Mitrovica and Pristina fell to the Central Powers.[43]
A column of the Serbian Army during its retreat towards the Adriatic coast.
To escape the encirclement by the Central Powers, on 25 November 1915, the government and the supreme command made the decision to withdraw across the Accursed Mountains of Montenegro and Albania. The objective was to reach the Adriatic coast, where the Serbs could regroup and replenish.[44] The retreat involved the remaining army forces, the King, hundreds of thousands of civilian refugees, and war prisoners. It was a perilous journey undertaken in the midst of winter, with severe weather conditions, difficult roads, and the constant threat of attacks by enemy forces and Albanian tribal bands.[10]
Between November 1915 and January 1916, during the trek across the mountains 77,455 soldiers and 160,000 civilians succumbed to freezing temperatures, starvation, diseases, or enemy actions. Austrian pilots employed new aerial bombardment technology, dropping bombs on the retreating columns, marking what has been described as 'the first aerial bombardment of civilians.'
Out of the initial 400,000 people who began this journey, only 120,000 soldiers and 60,000 civilians managed to reach the Adriatic coast. They then boarded Allied transport ships that took them to the island of Corfu, before eventually being sent to Salonika.[4] The evacuation of the Serbian army was completed on 5 April 1916.[45] Some survivors were in such weakened conditions that thousands of them died in the weeks following their rescue. Marshal Putnik, who had to be carried throughout the entire retreat, died fifteen months later in France. The period known as the "Great Retreat", also known as the Albanian Golgotha, is regarded in Serbian history as one of the nation's greatest tragedies.[46]
Aftermath
The Army of Montenegro did not follow the Serbs into exile but retreated to defend their own country. The Austrian-Hungarians launched their Montenegrin campaign on 5 January 1916. Despite some success of The Montenegrins in the Battle of Mojkovac, they were defeated within two weeks.
Serbia was divided by the Central Powers, between separate Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian military occupation zones. In the northern and central part of Serbia, which fell under Austro-Hungarian control, a Military General Governorate of Serbia was established, headquartered in Belgrade. The Bulgarian-occupied territory saw the formation of a military government with its center in Niš, with the area further divided into two administrative zones. Both the Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian occupation administrations implemented stringent measures,[47][48] subjecting the population to various forms of repression, including mass internment, forced labor, concentration camps for political opponents, famine, denationalisation, and policies aimed at cultural assimilation.[49][50] Kosovo was divided into two Austro-Hungarian occupational zones and the Bulgarian Military Region of Macedonia.[51]
Macedonian Front
In 1916, over 110,000 Serbian troops were relocated to Salonika, where they subsequently joined the Allied forces following Greece's entry into the war. These Serbian units would ultimately play a pivotal role in the breakthrough of the Macedonian Front in September 1917 and the subsequent liberation of Serbia a year later when French and Serbian forces defeated Bulgarian and German forces at the Battle of Dobro Pole.[13]
Notes
↑Number is for total Montenegrin losses in the war, including the Macedonian front.
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