Ulmus glabra

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Ulmus glabra
RN Ulmus glabra (alnarp sweden).jpg
Wych elm
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Ulmaceae
Genus: Ulmus
Subgenus: U. subg. Ulmus
Section: U. sect. Ulmus
Species:
U. glabra
Binomial name
Ulmus glabra
Ulmus glabra range.svg
Distribution map
Synonyms
List
    • Ulmus campestrisL. Mill., Wilkomm
    • Ulmus corylaceaDumrt.
    • Ulmus elliptica Koch
    • Ulmus effusaSibth.
    • Ulmus excelsa Borkh.
    • Ulmus expansaRota
    • Ulmus leucocarpaSchur.
    • Ulmus macrophyllaMill.
    • Ulmus majorSm.
    • Ulmus montanaStokes, Smith, Loudon, Mathieu, With.
    • Ulmus nudaEhrh.
    • Ulmus podolica(Wilcz.) Klok.
    • Ulmus popoviiGiga.
    • Ulmus scabraMill., C. K. Schneid., Ley, Ascherson & Graebner
    • Ulmus scoticaGand.
    • Ulmus suberosaMichx.
    • Ulmus sukaczeviiAndronov

Ulmus glabra, the wych elm or Scots elm, has the widest range of the European elm species, from Ireland eastwards to the Ural Mountains, and from the Arctic Circle south to the mountains of the Peloponnese and Sicily, where the species reaches its southern limit in Europe; [2] it is also found in Iran. A large deciduous tree, it is essentially a montane species, growing at elevations up to 1,500 m (4,900 ft), preferring sites with moist soils and high humidity. [3] The tree can form pure forests in Scandinavia and occurs as far north as latitude 67°N at Beiarn Municipality in Norway. It has been successfully introduced as far north as Tromsø and Alta in northern Norway (70°N). [4] It has also been successfully introduced to Narsarsuaq, near the southern tip of Greenland (61°N).

Contents

The tree was by far the most common elm in the north and west of the British Isles and is now acknowledged as the only indisputably British native elm species. Owing to its former abundance in Scotland, the tree is occasionally known as the Scotch or Scots elm; Loch Lomond is said to be a corruption of the Gaelic Lac Leaman interpreted by some as 'Lake of the Elms', 'leaman' being the plural form of leam or lem, 'elm'. [5]

Closely related species, such as Bergmann's elm U. bergmanniana and Manchurian elm U. laciniata, native to northeast Asia, were once sometimes included in U. glabra; [6] another close relative is the Himalayan or Kashmir elm U. wallichiana. Conversely, Ulmus elliptica from the Caucasus, considered a species by some authorities, [7] [8] [9] is often listed as a regional form of Ulmus glabra. [10]

Etymology

The word "wych" (also spelled "witch") comes from the Old English wice, meaning pliant or supple, which also gives definition to wicker and weak. Jacob George Strutt's 1822 book, Sylva Britannica attests that the Wych Elm was sometimes referred to as the "Wych Hazel", a name now applied to the unrelated species Hamamelis, commonly called "wych hazels". [11]

Classification

Subspecies

Some botanists, notably Lindquist (1931), have proposed two subspecies: [12]

Much overlap is seen between populations with these characters, and the distinction may owe to environmental influence, rather than genetic variation; the subspecies are not accepted by Flora Europaea. [15]

Description

The type sometimes reaches heights of 40 m (130 ft), typically with a broad crown where open-grown, supported by a short bole up to 2 m (6.6 ft) diameter at breast height (DBH). Normally, root suckers are not seen; natural reproduction is by seed alone. The tree is notable for its very tough, supple young shoots, which are always without the corky ridges or 'wings' characteristic of many elms. The alternate leaves are deciduous, 6–17 cm long by 3–12 cm broad, usually obovate with an asymmetric base, the lobe often completely covering the short (<5 mm) petiole; [16] the upper surface is rough. Leaves on juvenile or shade-grown shoots sometimes have three or more lobes near the apex. [17] The perfect hermaphrodite flowers appear before the leaves in early spring, produced in clusters of 10–20; they are 4 mm across on 10 mm long stems, and being wind-pollinated, are apetalous. The fruit is a winged samara 20 mm long and 15 mm broad, with a single, round, 6 mm seed in the centre, maturing in late spring. [18] [19]

Pests and diseases

While the species is highly susceptible to Dutch elm disease, [20] [21] it is less favoured as a host by the elm bark beetles, which act as vectors. Research in Spain has indicated the presence of a triterpene, alnulin, rendering the tree bark less attractive to the beetle than the field elm, though at 87 μg/g dried bark, its concentration is not as effective as in Ulmus laevis (200 μg/g). [22] Moreover, once the tree is dying, its bark is quickly colonized by the fungus Phoma , which radically reduces the amount of bark available for the beetle to breed on. [23] In European trials, clones of apparently resistant trees were inoculated with the pathogen, causing 85 – 100% wilting, resulting in 68% mortality by the following year. DNA analysis by Cemagref (now Irstea) in France has determined the genetic diversity within the species is very limited, making the chances of a resistant tree evolving rather remote. [24]

A 300-year-old example growing in Grenzhammer, Ilmenau has allegedly been scientifically proven to be resistant to Dutch elm disease. [25]

The Swedish Forest Tree Breeding Association at Källstorp produced triploid and tetraploid forms of the tree, but these proved no more resistant to Dutch elm disease than the normal diploid form. [26]

In trials conducted in Italy, the tree was found to have a slight to moderate susceptibility to elm yellows, and a high susceptibility to the elm leaf beetle Xanthogaleruca luteola . [27]

Cultivation

The wych elm is moderately shade-tolerant, but requires deep, rich soils as typically found along river valleys. [29] The species is intolerant of acid soils and flooding, [30] as it is of prolonged drought. [31] Although rarely used as a street tree owing to its shape, it can be surprisingly tolerant of urban air pollution, constricted growing conditions, and severe pollarding.

As wych elm does not sucker from the roots, and any seedlings are often consumed by uncontrolled deer populations, regeneration is very restricted, limited to sprouts from the stumps of young trees. The resultant decline has been extreme, and the wych elm is now uncommon over much of its former range. It is best propagated from seed or by layering stooled stock plants, although softwood cuttings taken in early June will root fairly reliably under mist. [32]

Wych elm was widely planted in Edinburgh in the 19th century as a park and avenue tree, and despite losses, it remains abundant there, regenerating through seedlings. [33] [5] It was introduced to New England in the 18th century, [34] to Canada (as U. montana at the Dominion Arboretum, Ottawa) [35] [36] and Australia in the 19th century. [37]

Uses

Lumber

Wych elm wood is prized by craftsmen for its colouring, its striking grain, its 'partridge-breast' or 'catspaw' markings, and when worked, its occasional iridescent greenish sheen or 'bloom'. The bosses on old trees produce the characteristic fissures and markings of 'burr elm' wood. [38] Bosses fringed with shoots are burrs, whereas unfringed bosses are burls.

Medicine

Medical properties of Ulmus campestris, Dijon, 1783 Ulmus campestris-Dijon.png
Medical properties of Ulmus campestris, Dijon, 1783

In 18th century France, the inner bark of Ulmus glabra, orme pyramidale, had a brief reputation as a panacea; [39] [40] "it was taken as a powder, as an extract, as an elixir, even in baths. It was good for the nerves, the chest, the stomach — what can I say? — it was a true panacea." [41] It was this so-called "pyramidal elm bark" about which Michel-Philippe Bouvart famously quipped "Take it, Madame... and hurry up while it [still] cures." [41] It still appeared in a pharmacopeia of 1893. [40]

Notable trees

Ancient U. glabra in Styria, Austria ID 1481 Bergulme 001.jpg
Ancient U. glabra in Styria, Austria

Possibly the oldest wych elm in Europe grew at Beauly Priory in Inverness-shire, Scotland; the tree succumbed to DED in 2022 and collapsed the following year. The priory was founded circa 1230, the tree already in existence. [42]

The UK Champion listed in the Tree Register of the British Isles was at Brahan in the Scottish Highlands [43] (died 2021 [44] ); it had a girth of 703 cm (2.23 m DBH) and a height of 24 m. [45] Possibly the oldest specimen in England was found in 2018 in a field north of Hopton Castle in Shropshire. Coppiced long ago, its bole girth measured 6.3 m in 2018. The oldest specimen in Edinburgh is believed to be the tree (girth 5.2 m) in the former grounds of Duddingston House, now Duddingston Golf Course. [46] Other notable specimens in Edinburgh are to be found in Learmonth Gardens and The Meadows. [47]

In Europe, a large tree planted in 1620 grows at Bergemolo, 5 km south of Demonte in Piedmont, Italy (bole-girth 6.2 m, 2.0 m DBH, height 26 m., 2008). [48] [49] Other ancient specimens grow at Styria, in Austria, and at Grenzhammer, Germany (see Gallery). In 1998, over 700 healthy, mature trees were discovered on the upper slopes of Mount Šimonka in Slovakia, but they are believed to have survived courtesy of their isolation from disease-carrying beetles rather than any innate resistance; 50 clones of these trees were presented to the Prince of Wales for planting at his Highgrove Estate, and at Clapham, Yorkshire. [50]

In literature

E. M. Forster cites a particular wych elm, one that grew at his childhood home of Rooks Nest, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, 16 times in his novel Howards End . This tree overhangs the house of the title and is said to have a "...girth that a dozen men could not have spanned..." Forster describes the tree as "...a comrade, bending over the house, strength and adventure in its roots." The wych elm of the novel had pigs' teeth embedded in the trunk by country people long ago and it was said that chewing some of the bark could cure toothache. In keeping with the novel's epigraph, "Only connect...", the wych elm may be seen by some as a symbol of the connection of humans to the earth. Margaret Schlegel, the novel's protagonist, fears that any "....westerly gale might blow the wych elm down and bring the end of all things..." The tree is changed to a chestnut in the 1991 film adaptation of Howards End .

Cultivars

About 40 cultivars have been raised, although at least 30 are now probably lost to cultivation as a consequence of Dutch elm disease and/or other factors:

NB: 'Exoniensis', Exeter Elm, has traditionally been classified as a form of U. glabra, but its identity is now a matter of contention.

Hybrids and hybrid cultivars

U. glabra hybridises naturally with U. minor , producing elms of the Ulmus × hollandica group, from which have arisen a number of cultivars:

However, hybrids of U. glabra and U. pumila , the Siberian elm, have not been observed in the field and only achieved in the laboratory, though the ranges of the two species, the latter introduced by man, overlap in parts of Southern Europe, notably Spain. [22] A crossing in Russia of U. glabra and U. pumila produced the hybrid named Ulmus × arbuscula ; a similar crossing was cloned ('FL025') by the Istituto per la Protezione delle Piante (IPP), Florence, as part of the Italian elm breeding programme circa 2000.

Hybrids with U. glabra in their ancestry have featured strongly in recent artificial hybridization experiments in Europe, notably at Wageningen in the Netherlands, and a number of hybrid cultivars have been commercially released since 1960. [53] The earlier trees were raised in response to the initial Dutch elm disease pandemic that afflicted Europe after the First World War, and were to prove vulnerable to the much more virulent strain of the disease that arrived in the late 1960s. However, further research eventually produced several trees effectively immune to disease, which were released after 1989. [54]

Accessions

North America
Europe
Australasia

In art

See also

Related Research Articles

<i>Ulmus laevis</i> Species of tree

Ulmus laevisPall., variously known as the European white elm, fluttering elm, spreading elm, stately elm and, in the United States, the Russian elm, is a large deciduous tree native to Europe, from France northeast to southern Finland, east beyond the Urals into Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan, and southeast to Bulgaria and the Crimea; there are also disjunct populations in the Caucasus and Spain, the latter now considered a relict population rather than an introduction by man, and possibly the origin of the European population. U. laevis is rare in the UK, although its random distribution, together with the absence of any record of its introduction, has led at least one British authority to consider it native. NB: The epithet 'white' elm commonly used by British foresters alluded to the timber of the wych elm.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Vegeta Elm cultivar

Ulmus × hollandica 'Vegeta', sometimes known as the Huntingdon Elm, is an old English hybrid cultivar raised at Brampton, near Huntingdon, by nurserymen Wood & Ingram in 1746, allegedly from seed collected at nearby Hinchingbrooke Park. In Augustine Henry's day, in the later 19th century, the elms in Hinchingbrooke Park were U. nitens. Richens, noting that wych elm is rare in Huntingdonshire, normally flowering four to six weeks later than field elm, pointed out that unusually favourable circumstances would have had to coincide to produce such seed: "It is possible that, some time in the eighteenth century, the threefold requirements of synchronous flowering of the two species, a south-west wind", "and a mild spring permitting the ripening of the samaras, were met."

<i>Ulmus minor</i> Stricta Elm cultivar

The field elm cultivar Ulmus minor 'Stricta', known as Cornish elm, was commonly found in South West England, Brittany, and south-west Ireland, until the arrival of Dutch elm disease in the late 1960s. The origin of Cornish elm in the south-west of Britain remains a matter of contention. It is commonly assumed to have been introduced from Brittany. It is also considered possible that the tree may have survived the ice ages on lands to the south of Cornwall long since lost to the sea. Henry thought it "probably native in the south of Ireland". Dr Max Coleman of Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, arguing in his 2002 paper on British elms that there was no clear distinction between species and subspecies, suggested that known or suspected clones of Ulmus minor, once cultivated and named, should be treated as cultivars, preferred the designation U. minor 'Stricta' to Ulmus minor var. stricta. The DNA of 'Stricta' has been investigated and the cultivar is now known to be a clone.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Major Elm cultivar

Ulmus × hollandica 'Major' is a distinctive cultivar that in England came to be known specifically as theDutch Elm, although all naturally occurring Field Elm Ulmus minor × Wych Elm U. glabra hybrids are loosely termed 'Dutch elm'. It is also known by the cultivar name 'Hollandica'. Nellie Bancroft considered 'Major' either an F2 hybrid or a backcrossing with one of its parents.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Belgica Elm cultivar

The hybrid elm cultivar Ulmus × hollandica 'Belgica', one of a number of hybrids arising from the crossing of Wych Elm with a variety of Field Elm, was reputedly raised in the nurseries of the Abbey of the Dunes, Veurne, in 1694. Popular throughout Belgium and the Netherlands in the 19th century both as an ornamental and as a shelter-belt tree, it was the 'Hollandse iep' in these countries, as distinct from the tree known as 'Dutch Elm' in Great Britain and Ireland since the 17th century: Ulmus × hollandica 'Major'. In Francophone Belgium it was known as orme gras de Malines.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Dampieri Elm cultivar

The hybrid elm cultivar Ulmus × hollandica 'Dampieri', one of a number of cultivars arising from the crossing of the Wych Elm U. glabra with a variety of Field Elm U. minor, is believed to have originated in continental Europe. It was marketed in Wetteren, Belgium, in 1851 as 'Orme de Dampier', then in the Low Countries in 1853, and later identified as Ulmus campestris var. nuda subvar. fastigiata DampieriHort., Vilv. by Wesmael (1862).

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ulmus glabra 'Horizontalis'</span> Elm cultivar

The Wych Elm cultivar Ulmus glabra 'Horizontalis', commonly known as the Weeping Wych Elm or Horizontal Elm, was discovered in a Perth nursery circa 1816. The tree was originally identified as 'Pendula' by Loddiges (London), in his catalogue of 1836, a name adopted by Loudon two years later in Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, 3: 1398, 1838, but later sunk as a synonym for 'Horizontalis'.

The elm cultivar Ulmus 'Atropurpurea' [:dark purple] was raised from seed at the Späth nursery in Berlin, Germany, circa 1881, as Ulmus montana atropurpurea, and was marketed there till the 1930s, being later classed as a cultivar by Boom. Henry (1913) included it under Ulmus montana cultivars but noted that it was "very similar to and perhaps identical with" Ulmus purpureaHort. At Kew it was renamed U. glabraHuds. 'Atropurpurea', but Späth used U. montana both for wych elm and for some U. × hollandica hybrids, so his name does not necessarily imply a wych elm cultivar. The Hesse Nursery of Weener, Germany, however, which marketed 'Atropurpurea' in the 1950s, listed it in later years as a form of U. glabraHuds..

<i>Ulmus</i> Purpurea Elm cultivar

The elm cultivar Ulmus 'Purpurea', the purple-leaved elm, was listed and described as Ulmus Stricta Purpurea, the 'Upright Purpled-leaved Elm', by John Frederick Wood, F.H.S., in The Midland Florist and Suburban Horticulturist (1851), as Ulmus purpureaHort. by Wesmael (1863), and as Ulmus campestris var. purpurea, syn. Ulmus purpureaHort. by Petzold and Kirchner in Arboretum Muscaviense (1864). Koch's description followed (1872), the various descriptions appearing to tally. Henry (1913) noted that the Ulmus campestris var. purpureaPetz. & Kirchn. grown at Kew as U. montana var. purpurea was "probably of hybrid origin", Ulmus montana being used at the time both for wych elm cultivars and for some of the U. × hollandica group. His description of Kew's U. montana var. purpurea matches that of the commonly-planted 'Purpurea' of the 20th century. His discussion of it (1913) under U. campestris, however, his name for English Elm, may be the reason why 'Purpurea' is sometimes erroneously called U. procera 'Purpurea' (as in USA and Sweden.

The Field Elm cultivar Ulmus minor 'Cucullata', the Hooded elm, was listed by Loddiges of Hackney, London, in their catalogue of 1823 as Ulmus campestris cucullata, and later by Loudon in Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum (1838), as U. campestris var. cucullata.

<i>Ulmus</i> Louis van Houtte Elm cultivar

Ulmus 'Louis van Houtte' is believed to have been first cultivated in Ghent, Belgium circa 1863. It was first mentioned by Franz Deegen in 1886. It was once thought a cultivar of English Elm Ulmus minor 'Atinia', though this derivation has long been questioned; W. J. Bean called it "an elm of uncertain status". Its dissimilarity from the type and its Belgian provenance make the 'Atinia' attribution unlikely. Fontaine (1968) considered it probably a form of U. × hollandica.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Superba Elm cultivar

The hybrid elm cultivar Ulmus × hollandica 'Superba' is one of a number of intermediate forms arising from the crossing of the Wych Elm U. glabra with a variety of Field Elm U. minor. Boulger tentatively (1881) and Green more confidently (1964) equated it with a hybrid elm cultivated in the UK by Masters at Canterbury in the early 19th century, known as "Masters' Canterbury Seedling" or simply the Canterbury Elm. Loudon examined a specimen sent by Masters and considered it a hybrid, calling it U. montana glabra major.

<i>Ulmus minor</i> Viminalis Pulverulenta Elm cultivar

The Field Elm cultivar Ulmus minor 'Viminalis Pulverulenta' (:'powdery'), also known as 'Viminalis Variegata', a variegated form of U. minor 'Viminalis', was first mentioned by Dieck, in 1885 as U. scabra viminalis pulverulentaHort., but without description. Nursery, arboretum, and herbarium specimens confirm that this cultivar was sometimes regarded as synonymous with U. minor 'Viminalis Marginata', first listed in 1864, which is variegated mostly on the leaf margin. It is likely, however, that 'Pulverulenta' was the U. 'Viminalis Variegata', Variegated Twiggy-branched elm, that was listed and described by John Frederick Wood, F.H.S., in The Midland Florist and Suburban Horticulturist 1847 and 1851, pre-dating both Kirchner and Dieck. Wood did not specify the nature of the variegation.

<i>Ulmus</i> Scampstoniensis Elm cultivar

The elm cultivar Ulmus 'Scampstoniensis', the Scampston Elm or Scampston Weeping Elm, is said to have come from Scampston Hall, Yorkshire, England, before 1810. Loudon opined that a tree of the same name at the Royal Horticultural Society's Garden in 1834, 18 feet (5.5 m) high at 8 years old "differed little from the species". Henry described the tree, from a specimen growing in Victoria Park, Bath, as "a weeping form of U. nitens" [:Ulmus minor ]; however Green considered it "probably a form of Ulmus × hollandica". Writing in 1831, Loudon said that the tree was supposed to have originated in America. U. minor is not, however, an American species, so if the tree was brought from America, it must originally have been taken there from Europe. There was an 'American Plantation' at Scampston, which may be related to this supposition. A number of old specimens of 'Scampstoniensis' in this plantation were blown down in a great gale of October 1881; younger specimens were still present at Scampston in 1911.

<i>Ulmus</i> × <i>hollandica</i> Wentworthii Pendula Elm cultivar

Ulmus × hollandica 'Wentworthii Pendula', commonly known as the Wentworth Elm or Wentworth Weeping Elm, is a cultivar with a distinctive weeping habit that appears to have been introduced to cultivation towards the end of the 19th century. The tree is not mentioned in either Elwes and Henry's or Bean's classic works on British trees. The earliest known references are Dutch and German, the first by de Vos in Handboek tot de praktische kennis der voornaamste boomen (1890). At about the same time, the tree was offered for sale by the Späth nursery of Berlin as Ulmus Wentworthi pendulaHort.. The 'Hort.' in Späth's 1890 catalogue, without his customary label "new", confirms that the tree was by then in nurseries as a horticultural elm. De Vos, writing in 1889, states that the Supplement to Volume 1 includes entries announced since the main volume in 1887, putting the date of introduction between 1887 and 1889.

The Wych Elm cultivar Ulmus glabra 'Grandidentata', listed as U. glabra var. grandidentata (Moss), may have been the tree first described by Dumortier in Florula Belgica, 25, 1827, as U. corylacea var. grandidentata, in cultivation before 1830. Green thought it a synonym of 'Cornuta'. 'Grandidentata' may be synonymous with U. glabra 'Corylifolia', which Green thought another synonym of 'Cornuta'.

<i>Ulmus</i> Fastigiata Glabra Elm cultivar

The elm cultivar Ulmus 'Fastigiata Glabra' was distributed by the Späth nursery, Berlin, in the 1890s and early 1900s as U. montana fastigiata glabra. Späth used U. montana both for cultivars of wych elm and for those of some U. × hollandica hybrids like 'Dampieri'. A specimen of U. montana fastigiata glabra in the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh was determined by Melville in 1958 as a hybrid of the U. × hollandica group.

<i>Ulmus</i> Glabra Elm cultivar

The elm cultivar Ulmus 'Glabra' was distributed by the Späth nursery, Berlin, in the 1890s and early 1900s as U. glabraMill.. Not to be confused with the species U. glabraHuds..

<i>Ulmus glabra</i> Concavaefolia Elm cultivar

The Wych Elm cultivar Ulmus glabra 'Concavaefolia', a form with up-curling leaves, was listed in Beissner's Handbuch der Laubholz-Benennung (1903) as Ulmus montana cucullataHort. [:'hooded', the leaf], a synonym of the Ulmus scabraMill. [:glabraHuds.] var. concavaefolia of herbarium specimens. An Ulmus campestris cucullata, of uncertain species, had appeared in Loddiges' 1823 list, but Loudon's brief description (1838) of concave- and hooded-leaved elms was insufficient for later botanists to distinguish them. The earliest unambiguous description appears to be that of Petzold and Kirchner in Arboretum Muscaviense (1864).

References

  1. ↑ Barstow, M.; Rivers, M.C. (2017). "Ulmus glabra". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . 2017: e.T61966807A61966819. doi: 10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T61966807A61966819.en . Retrieved 19 November 2021.
  2. ↑ Raimondo, Francesco Maria (1 January 1977). "First finding of " Ulmus glabra " Huds. on the Madonie, Northern Sicily". Webbia. 31 (2): 261–277. doi:10.1080/00837792.1977.10670074. ISSN   0083-7792.
  3. ↑ Heybroek, H. M., Goudzwaard, L, Kaljee, H. (2009). Iep of olm, karakterboom van de Lage Landen (:Elm, a tree with character of the Low Countries). KNNV, Uitgeverij. ISBN   9789050112819
  4. ↑ "Utbredelse - Naturhistorisk museum". Archived from the original on 26 September 2020.
  5. 1 2 Richens, R. H. (1983). Elm. Cambridge University Press. ISBN   9780521294621
  6. ↑ Elwes, H. J. & Henry, A. (1913). The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland . Vol. VII. 1848–1929. Republished 2014 Cambridge University Press, ISBN   9781108069380
  7. ↑ Elwes, Henry John, & Henry, Augustine, (1913) The Trees of Great Britain & Ireland, Vol.7, pp.1863-1864
  8. ↑ Bean, W. J. (1988) Trees and shrubs hardy in Great Britain, 8th edition, Murray, London
  9. ↑ Krüssman, Gerd, Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved Trees & Shrubs (1984 vol. 3)
  10. ↑ Richens, R. H., Elm (Cambridge 1983), p.279
  11. ↑ Jacob George Strutt (1822). Sylva Britannica. p. 66. Full text of expanded 1830 edition.
  12. ↑ Bertil, Lindguist (1931). "Two varieties of North West European Ulmus glabra". Botanical Society Report. 9: 785. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  13. 1 2 Myking, Tor; Yakovlev, Igor (2006). "Variation in leaf morphology and chloroplast DNA in Ulmus glabra in the northern suture zone: Effects of distinct glacial refugia". Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research. 21 (2): 99–107. Bibcode:2006SJFR...21...99M. doi:10.1080/02827580500539265. S2CID   84736722.
  14. ↑ bioportal.naturalis.nl L.1587168 Ulmus glabra Huds. subsp. montana (Stokes) Lindq., Thirsk, Yorkshire, 1937
  15. ↑ Flora Europaea: Ulmus glabra
  16. ↑ "Herbarium specimen - E00824735". Herbarium Catalogue. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Sheet labelled Ulmus scabraMill. = Ulmus montana With. ; "Herbarium specimen - E00824732". Herbarium Catalogue. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Sheet labelled Ulmus montana = Ulmus glabraHuds. RBGE specimen, 1900; "Herbarium specimen - E00824730". Herbarium Catalogue. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Sheet described as Ulmus glabraHuds. from Bridge of Allan, Scotland, 1899; "Herbarium specimen - E00824764". Herbarium Catalogue. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Cotyledon and seedling leaves, Ulmus scabraMill. = Ulmus montana With.
  17. ↑ Coleman, M (ed.). (2009). Wych Elm. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. ISBN   978-1-906129-21-7.
  18. ↑ Bean, W. J. (1981). Trees and shrubs hardy in Great Britain, 7th edition. Murray, London.
  19. ↑ White, J. & More, D. (2003). Trees of Britain and Northern Europe. Cassell's, London
  20. ↑ Forestry Commission. Dutch elm disease in Britain, UK
  21. ↑ Brasier, C. M. (1996). New horizons in Dutch elm disease control. Pages 20–28 in: Report on Forest Research, 1996. Forestry Commission. HMSO, London, UK.
  22. 1 2 Martín-Benito, Dario; García-Vallejo, Maria Concepción; Pajares, Juan Alberto; López, David (2005). "Triterpenes in elms in Spain" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 35 (1): 199–205. Bibcode:2005CaJFR..35..199M. doi:10.1139/x04-158. S2CID   85380172. Archived from the original (PDF) on 28 June 2007. Retrieved 18 June 2007.
  23. ↑ Webber, Joan (1981). "A natural biological control of Dutch elm disease". Nature. 292 (5822): 449–451. Bibcode:1981Natur.292..449W. doi:10.1038/292449a0. S2CID   4328001.
  24. ↑ Solla et al. (2005). "Screening European Elms for Resistance to Ophiostoma novo-ulmi". Forest Science, 134–141. 51 (2) 2005. Society of American Foresters.
  25. ↑ "In Ilmenau steht die einzige resistente Bergulme Europas". 15 March 2014. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022.
  26. ↑ Went, Johanna C. (1954). "The Dutch elm disease - Summary of fifteen years hybridisation and selection work (1937–1952)". European Journal of Plant Pathology. 60 (2): 109–127. Bibcode:1954EJPP...60..109W. doi:10.1007/BF02151105. S2CID   38868071.
  27. ↑ Mittempergher, L; Santini, A (2004). "The history of elm breeding" (PDF). Investigacion Agraria: Sistemas y Recursos Forestales. 13 (1): 161–177. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 February 2017.
  28. ↑ 'Borders Wych (Elm) Hunt', Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2024
  29. ↑ Edlin, H. L. (1949). British woodland trees. Batsford, London.
  30. ↑ Thomas, Peter A.; Stone, Duncan; La Porta, Nicola (2018). "Biological Flora of the British Isles: Ulmus glabra" (PDF). Journal of Ecology. 106 (4): 1724–1766. Bibcode:2018JEcol.106.1724T. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12994. S2CID   89800637.
  31. ↑ CAB International (2005) Forestry Compendium. CAB International, Wallingford, UK
  32. ↑ Beckett, K. & G. (1979). Planting Native Trees and Shrubs. Jarrold & Sons, Norwich, UK.
  33. ↑ Coleman, Max, ed., Wych Elm (Edinburgh, 2009)
  34. ↑ Browne, Daniel Jay (1851). The Trees of America. New York: Harper & Brothers. p. 481.
  35. ↑ Saunders, William; Macoun, William Tyrrell (1899). Catalogue of the trees and shrubs in the arboretum and botanic gardens at the central experimental farm (2 ed.). Ottawa. pp. 74–75.
  36. ↑ canadiantreetours.org
  37. ↑ Spencer, Roger, ed., Horticultural Flora of South-Eastern Australia, Vol. 2 (Sydney, 1995), Ulmus, p. 103-118
  38. ↑ Coleman, Max, ed., Wych Elm (Royal Botanic Garden publications, Edinburgh, 2009)
  39. ↑ Simon Morelot, Cours élémentaire d'histoire naturelle pharmaceutique..., 1800, p. 349 "the elm, pompously named pyramidal...it had an ephemeral reputation"
  40. 1 2 Georges Dujardin-Beaumetz, Formulaire pratique de thérapeutique et de pharmacologie, 1893, p. 260
  41. 1 2 Gaston de Lévis, Souvenirs et portraits, 1780-1789, 1813, p. 240
  42. ↑ 'Europe's oldest' wych elm tree falls down in Beauly Priory
  43. ↑ The Brahan Elm, forestry.gov.uk
  44. ↑ Coleman, Max, 'Wake-up call to climate change'; Botanics Stories, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2022
  45. ↑ "The Woodland Trust" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 November 2005.
  46. ↑ CEC information; tree may be seen on Google Streetview, beside Cavalry Park Drive, E. of Holy Rood High School.
  47. ↑ Edinburgh Wych-elm photographs
  48. ↑ Association of Nature Patriarchs in Italy: Piemonte - Olmo di Bergemolo, access-date: 23 November 2016
  49. ↑ "Google Maps". Google.co.uk. Retrieved 7 February 2017.
  50. ↑ "CST Slovakia - News". Archived from the original on 16 September 2005. Retrieved 4 August 2006.
  51. ↑ "Ilmenaus bekannteste und vermutlich Europas älteste Ulme fiel dem Unwetter zum Opfer". ilmenau.de. 2015. Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 29 August 2017.
  52. ↑ Coleman, Max, 'Last Ent set to repopulate Glen Affric'; Botanics Stories, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 2024
  53. ↑ Green, Peter Shaw (1964). "Registration of cultivar names in Ulmus". Arnoldia. 24 (6–8). Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University: 41–80. doi:10.5962/p.249479 . Retrieved 16 February 2017.
  54. ↑ Heybroek, H.M. (1993). "The Dutch Elm Breeding Program". In Sticklen, Mariam B.; Sherald, James L. (eds.). Dutch Elm Disease Research. New York, USA: Springer-Verlag. pp. 16–25. ISBN   978-1-4615-6874-2 . Retrieved 26 October 2017.

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