Antirrhinum

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Antirrhinum
Temporal range: 5–0  Ma
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Antirrhinum majus from Thasos.JPG
Antirrhinum majus
Scientific classification OOjs UI icon edit-ltr.svg
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Eudicots
Clade: Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Plantaginaceae
Tribe: Antirrhineae
Genus: Antirrhinum
L.
Type species
Antirrhinum majus
L.
Sections
  • Antirrhinum
  • Orontium
  • Saerorhinum

Antirrhinum is a genus of plants in the Plantaginaceae family, commonly known as dragon flowers or snapdragons because of the flowers' fancied resemblance to the face of a dragon that opens and closes its mouth when laterally squeezed. They are also sometimes called toadflax [1] or dog flower. [2] They are native to rocky areas of Europe, the United States, Canada, and North Africa. Antirrhinum species are widely used as ornamental plants in borders and as cut flowers. [3]

Contents

Description

The Antirrhinum is morphologically diverse, particularly the New World group (Saerorhinum). [4] The genus is characterized by personate flowers with an inferior gibbous corolla.[ clarification needed ]

Taxonomy

Antirrhinum used to be treated within the family Scrophulariaceae, but studies of DNA sequences have led to its inclusion in a vastly enlarged family Plantaginaceae, within the tribe Antirrhineae.

Circumscription

The taxonomy of this genus is complex and not yet fully resolved at present. In particular the exact circumscription of the genus, especially the inclusion of the New World species (Saerorhinum), is contentious. [4] The situation is further complicated by the variety of terms in use for infrageneric ranks, especially of the Old World species, that is Antirrhinum, sensu stricto (e.g. Streptosepalum, Kicksiella, Meonantha).

The USDA Plants Database recognises only two species: A. majus (the garden snapdragon), the only species naturalised in North America, and A. bellidifolium (the lilac snapdragon), now considered to be Anarrhinum bellidifolium (L.) Willd. [5] There are 23 accepted species. [6]

A widely accepted scheme (Thompson 1988) placed 36 species in the genus in three sections. While many botanists accepted this broad circumscription ( sensu lato ), whose main departure from other classifications was the inclusion of the New World Saerorhinum, [7] others did not, restricting the genus to the Old World. (For a comparison of Thompson with earlier systems, see Oyama and Baum, Table 1.) New species also continue to be discovered (see e.g. Romo et al., 1995).

In 2004 research into the molecular systematics of this group and related species by Oyama and Baum confirmed that the genus sensu lato as described by Thompson is monophyletic, provided that one species ( A. cyathiferum ) is removed to the separate genus Pseudorontium, and the two species of Mohavea (Mohavea confertiflora and M. breviflora) are included. The species list given here follows these conclusions. [4]

This is the broad circumscription that includes the Old World Misopates and New World Sairocarpus . By contrast the narrow circumscription (sensu stricto) confines the genus to the monophyletic Old World perennial species with a diploid chromosome number of 16, distributed in the Mediterranean basin, approximately 25 species., [8] following the phylogenetic analysis of Vargas et al. (2004) suggesting they are a distinct group. Both Misopates and Sairocarpus are accepted names in The Plant List, and many of the New World species now have Sairocarpus as their accepted name, rather than Antirrhinum. It has been proposed that many of the New World Antirrhinum be now considered under Sairocarpus, in the forthcoming Flora of North America . [9]

Infrageneric subdivision

It is widely agreed that this broad group should be subdivided into three or four subgroups, but the level at which this should be done, and exactly which species should be grouped together, remain unclear. Some authors continue to follow Thompson in using a large genus Antirrhinum, which is then divided into several sections; others treat Thompson's genus as a tribe or subtribe, and divide it into several genera. For a comparison of earlier schemes see Mateu-Andrés and de Paco, Table 1 (2005) [10]

If the broad circumscription is accepted, its three sections as described by Thompson are as follows (two Old World, one New):

Snapdragons

While Antirrhinum majus is the plant that is usually meant by the term of "snapdragon" if used on its own, many other species in the genus, and in the family Scrophulariaceae more widely, have common names that include the word "snapdragon". For example, Antirrhinum molle is known as "dwarf snapdragon" in the UK. [11]

Species

The following species are recognised in the genus Antirrhinum: [6]

Etymology

The name "Antirrhinum" is derived from the Greek ἀντίρρινονantirrhinon which in turn is derived from ἀντίanti "opposite, counterfeiting", and ῥίςrhis "nose" ( GEN ῥινόϛrhinos); from its resemblance to an animal's mouth. [12]

Ecology

Snapdragons are short-lived perennial plants that survive well in cold seasons but are often replanted each spring and considered annual plants. They do best in full or partial sun, in well-drained soil since their roots are susceptible to rotting (although they do require regular watering [13] ). They are classified commercially as a range of heights: midget or dwarf (15–20 cm or 6–8 in), medium (40–75 cm or 15–30 in) and tall (75–120 cm or 30–48 in). Removing the dead flowers, referred to as deadheading, is important to help them to continuously produce beautiful flowers throughout their growing season. They are susceptible to ethylene gas, so removing dead flowers and keeping them away from ripe fruits or vegetables also helps them bloom longer. [14] They grow during their peak seasons of April to June and August to October in the Northern Hemisphere [14] and bloom in a variety of colors such as white, yellow, orange, red, purple, pink, [15] including multicolored patterns. [16]

They are ecologically diverse, particularly the New World species (Saerorhinum). [4]

Cultivation

The snapdragon is an important garden plant, widely cultivated from tropical to temperate zones as a bedding, rockery, herbaceous border or container plant. [8] Cultivars have showy white, crimson, or yellow bilabiate flowers (with two lips). It is also important as a model organism in botanical research, and its genome has been studied in detail.

Genetic studies

Antirrhinum is a genus that has been used from the earliest genetic studies of Gregor Mendel and Charles Darwin and was used as a model by Erwin Baur. [8] Together with closely related genera, it has become a model organism for the investigation of the genetic basis of plant development, particularly floral development. [4] [17] The genus is a typical example of incomplete dominance by the red allele with the anthocyanin pigment. Any cross between red-flowered and white-flowered snapdragons, give an intermediate and heterozygous phenotype with pink flowers, that carries both the dominant and recessive alleles. [18]

Several species of Antirrhinum are self-incompatible, meaning that a plant cannot be fertilised by its own pollen. [19] Self-incompatibility in the genus has been studied since the early 1900s. [19] Self-incompatibility in Antirrhinum species is controlled gametophytically and shares many important features with self-incompatibility systems in Rosaceae and Solanaceae. [20]

Uses

In addition to growing the plants for cut flowers, the seeds have been used to extract edible oils, particularly in Russia, while the leaves and flowers have been considered to possess antiphlogistic (anti-inflammatory) properties and have been used in poultices. A green dye has also been extracted from the flowers. [8]

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Scrophulariaceae</span> Figwort family of flowering plants

The Scrophulariaceae are a family of flowering plants, commonly known as the figwort family. The plants are annual and perennial herbs, as well as shrubs. Flowers have bilateral (zygomorphic) or rarely radial (actinomorphic) symmetry. The Scrophulariaceae have a cosmopolitan distribution, with the majority found in temperate areas, including tropical mountains. The family name is based on the name of the included genus Scrophularia L.

<i>Linaria</i> Genus of flowering plants in the family Plantaginaceae

Linaria is a genus of almost 200 species of flowering plants, one of several related groups commonly called toadflax. They are annuals and herbaceous perennials, and the largest genus in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family Plantaginaceae.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Plantaginaceae</span> Family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales

Plantaginaceae, the plantain family, is a large, diverse family of flowering plants in the order Lamiales that includes common flowers such as snapdragon and foxglove. It is unrelated to the banana-like fruit also called "plantain." In older classifications, Plantaginaceae was the only family of the order Plantaginales, but numerous phylogenetic studies, summarized by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, have demonstrated that this taxon should be included within Lamiales.

<i>Nuttallanthus</i> Genus of flowering plants

Nuttallanthus is a genus of four species of herbaceous annuals and perennials that was traditionally placed in the foxglove family Scrophulariaceae. Due to new genetic research, it has now been placed in the vastly expanded family Plantaginaceae. Three species of Nuttallanthus are native to North America and one to South America. Nuttallanthus was until the 1980s included in a wider circumscription of the genus Linaria, a genus now considered restricted to the Old World.

<i>Antirrhinum majus</i> Species of flowering plant

Antirrhinum majus, the common snapdragon, is a species of flowering plant belonging to the genus Antirrhinum. The plant was placed in the family Plantaginaceae following a revision of its prior classical family, Scrophulariaceae.

<i>Mohavea</i> Genus of flowering plants

Mohavea is a plant genus consisting of two species native to the deserts of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico. This genus is often included in the closely related snapdragon genus Antirrhinum.

<i>Rhodochiton</i> Genus of flowering plants

Rhodochiton is a genus of flowering plants within the family Plantaginaceae, native to southern Mexico and neighbouring Guatemala. They climb by means of twining leaf stalks. One of the three species, Rhodochiton atrosanguineus, the purple bell vine, is grown as an ornamental plant. All three species are sometimes included in Lophospermum.

<i>Lophospermum</i> Genus of flowering plants

Lophospermum is a genus of herbaceous perennial climbers or scramblers, native to mountainous regions of Mexico and Guatemala. Those that climb use twining leaf stalks. Their flowers are tubular, in shades of red, violet and purple, the larger flowers being pollinated by hummingbirds. Now placed in the greatly expanded family Plantaginaceae, the genus was traditionally placed in the Scrophulariaceae. The close relationship with some other genera, particularly Maurandya and Rhodochiton, has led to confusion over the names of some species.

<i>Misopates</i> Genus of flowering plants

Misopates is a genus of the family Plantaginaceae, and is one of the groups of plants commonly known as 'snapdragons'. It has eight accepted species:

<i>Sairocarpus multiflorus</i> Species of flowering plant

Sairocarpus multiflorus is a species of New World snapdragon known by the common name Sierra snapdragon or multi-flowered snapdragon.

Pseudorontium is a genus of flowering plants with one species, Pseudorontium cyathiferum, a New World snapdragon known by the common names dog's-mouth and Deep Canyon snapdragon. It is native to the deserts of northern Mexico and adjacent California and Arizona. It is an annual herb producing a hairy, erect, non-climbing stem with many oval-shaped leaves. The solitary flowers are dark-veined deep purple and white, often with some yellow in the throat, and are about a centimeter long. Previously considered to belong among the New World Antirrhinum species, it is now considered the sole member of the related genus Pseudorontium.

<i>Asarina</i> Genus of flowering plants

Asarina is a flowering plant genus of only one species, Asarina procumbens Mill. the trailing snapdragon, which is native to France and Spain and introduced in Germany, Switzerland, Austria and Hungary. Originally placed in the Scrophulariaceae, the genus has more recently been moved to the Plantaginaceae. Species from North America formerly placed in the genus Asarina are now placed in Holmgrenanthe, Lophospermum, Mabrya and Maurandya, as well as Neogaerrhinum. Asarina is now regarded as exclusively an Old World genus.

<i>Maurandya</i> Genus of flowering plants

Maurandya is a genus of flowering plants in the family Plantaginaceae, native to Mexico and the south west United States. They sprawl or climb by means of twining leaf stalks. One of the four species, Maurandya barclayana, is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant.

<i>Holmgrenanthe</i> Genus of flowering plants

Holmgrenanthe petrophila is a rare perennial desert plant in the plantain family (Plantaginaceae), and the sole species of the genus Holmgrenanthe. It forms low mats of branched stems growing from a woody base. The leaves have small spines along their edges. The solitary yellow flowers are tubular with five free lobes at the end, the upper two pointing backwards, the lower three projecting forwards. The species is known only from about ten locations, most in the Titus Canyon and the adjacent Fall Canyon, all within the Californian section of Death Valley National Park. It grows in limestone crevices on the canyon walls, often on the north face.

<i>Mabrya</i> Genus of flowering plants

Mabrya is a genus of flowering plants in the plantain family, Plantaginaceae. It consists of herbaceous perennials with brittle upright or drooping stems, found in dry areas of Mexico and the southern United States.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Antirrhineae</span> Tribe of flowering plants

The Antirrhineae are one of the 12 tribes of the family Plantaginaceae. It contains the toadflax relatives, such as snapdragons.

<i>Sairocarpus</i> Genus of plants

Sairocarpus is a genus of the family Plantaginaceae, and is one of a group of plants commonly known as 'snapdragons'. It has ten accepted species and is being considered to include many species formerly considered as New World species of Antirrhinum.

<i>Neogaerrhinum</i> Genus of flowering plants

Neogaerrhinum is a genus of the family Plantaginaceae, and is one of a group of plants commonly known as 'snapdragons'. It has two accepted species and includes species formerly considered as New World members of Antirrhinum.

<i>Maurandella</i> Species of flowering plant

Maurandella antirrhiniflora, known as roving sailor or climbing snapdragon, is a species of flowering plant in the family Plantaginaceae. It is the sole species in genus Maurandella. It is a scrambling or climbing herbaceous perennial subshrub native to Mexico, the southwestern United States, Cuba, and the Turks and Caicos Islands, where it grows in a variety of relatively dry subtropical habitats.

<i>Gambelia</i> (plant) Genus of flowering plants

Gambelia is a genus of flowering plants in the Antirrhineae tribe of the plantain family commonly known as bush snapdragons. This genus is native to northwestern Mexico, particularly the Baja California Peninsula, but species are also found on the coast of Sonora, Guadalupe Island, and the Channel Islands of California. The genus is named in honor of William Gambel (1823–1849), an American naturalist, ornithologist, and botanist.

References

  1. 1 2 Fernández-Mazuecos, Mario; Blanco-Pastor, José Luis; Vargas, Pablo (2013). "A Phylogeny of Toadflaxes (Linaria Mill.) Based on Nuclear Internal Transcribed Spacer Sequences: Systematic and Evolutionary Consequences". International Journal of Plant Sciences. 174 (2): 234–249. doi:10.1086/668790. JSTOR   10.1086/668790. S2CID   85302392.
  2. ↑ "Antirrhinum majus - Dog Flower". www.flowersofindia.net. Retrieved 2022-02-20.
  3. ↑ RHS A-Z encyclopedia of garden plants. United Kingdom: Dorling Kindersley. 2008. p. 1136. ISBN   978-1405332965.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 Oyama, R. K.; Baum, D. A. (2004). "Phylogenetic relationships of North American Antirrhinum (Veronicaceae)". American Journal of Botany. 91 (6): 918–925. doi:10.3732/ajb.91.6.918. PMID   21653448.
  5. ↑ "Plants Profile for Antirrhinum (snapdragon)". plants.usda.gov. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  6. 1 2 "Antirrhinum L." Plants of the World Online. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Retrieved 3 July 2024.
  7. ↑ Thompson, D. M. (1988). Systematics of Antirrhinum (Scrophulariaceae) in the New World. Systematic Botany Monographs 22.
  8. 1 2 3 4 Tolety, J; Sane, A (2011). "Antirrhinum". In Kole, C (ed.). Wild Crop Relatives: Genomic and Breeding Resources. Plantation and Ornamental Crops. Springer. pp. 1–14.
  9. ↑ Barringer, Kerry (2013-05-20). "New combinations in Sairocarpus (Plantaginaceae)" (PDF). Phytoneuron. 2013 (34): 1–3. ISSN   2153-733X . Retrieved 2020-05-30.
  10. ↑ Mateu-Andrés, I.; De Paco, Lorena (Feb 1, 2005). "Allozymic Differentiation of the Antirrhinum majus and A. siculum Species Groups". Annals of Botany. 95 (3): 465–473. doi:10.1093/aob/mci055. PMC   4246802 . PMID   15596453 – via academic.oup.com.
  11. ↑ "Antirrhinum molle. dwarf snapdragon". rhs.org.uk. Retrieved 1 September 2017.
  12. ↑ "Antirrhinum" . Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press.(Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
  13. ↑ "Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus)". Sunset Magazine. Sep 22, 2004. Retrieved May 30, 2020.
  14. 1 2 "Snapdragon information from Flowers.org.uk". www.flowers.org.uk. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
  15. ↑ Heather, Molly (2023-07-09). "Pink Snapdragon Flowers: Ultimate Guide to Growing & Caring These Beautiful Blooms". organicgardeningeek.com. Retrieved 2023-07-09.
  16. ↑ "Antirrhinum majus - Plant Finder". www.missouribotanicalgarden.org. Retrieved 2020-04-30.
  17. ↑ Wilson, Yvette (2011). "The evolutionary history of Antirrhinum suggests that ancestral phenotype combinations survived repeated hybridizations". The Plant Journal. 66 (6): 1032–1043. doi: 10.1111/j.1365-313X.2011.04563.x . PMID   21435047. S2CID   26113532.
  18. ↑ Hartl, Daniel L.; Elizabeth W. Jones (2005). Genetics : analysis of genes and genomes (sixth ed.). Jones & Bartlett publishers. pp. 3.6 Incomplete Dominance and Epistasis. ISBN   978-0-7637-1511-3.
  19. 1 2 Xue, Yongbiao; Rosemary Carpenter; Hugh G. Dickinson; Enrico S. Coen (May 1996). "Origin of allelic diversity in antirrhinum S locus RNases". The Plant Cell. 8 (5): 805–814. doi:10.2307/3870283. JSTOR   3870283. PMC   161139 . PMID   8672882.
  20. ↑ Takayama, Seiji; Akira Isogai (2005). "Self-incompatibility in plants". Annual Review of Plant Biology. 56: 467–489. doi:10.1146/annurev.arplant.56.032604.144249. PMID   15862104. S2CID   1196223.

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