The location of Kilimanjaro means that, long before it was significant as a trading hub because of its location, the mountain served as an interim provisioning point in the commercial inland network. The residents of the mountain sold goods with caravans and traders from nearby settlements. It was easily accessible from the Swahili ports of Malindi, Takaungu, Mombasa, Wanga, Tanga, and Tangata as well as from Pangani in the south. Since they would cross Kilimanjaro on their way to conduct business in Pangani, the Kamba, Galla, and Nyamwezi are also familiar with the area. Chief Kivoi, a well-known Kamba trader, having personally climbed Kilimanjaro before organizing and leading his enormous caravans of up to 200 Kamba.[6]:44
Etymology
The term Dschagga appears to have been first used to refer to a location rather than a group of people. Johannes Rebmann refers to "the inhabitants of the Dschagga" while describing the Taita and Kamba peoples on his first trip to the mountain. It appears that "Dschagga" was the general name given to the entire mountainous region by distant residents who had cause to describe it, and that when the European traveler arrived there, his Swahili guide used "Dischagga" to describe other portions to him in general rather than giving him specific names. For instance, Rebmann on his second and third journeys from Kilema to Machame speaks of "going to Dschagga" from Kilema. The word was anglicized to "Jagga" by 1860 and to "Chagga" by 1871. Because it used to be thought of by Swahilis as a perilous area to visit, Charles New chose the latter spelling and identified it as a Swahili name that meant "to stray" or "to get lost" in reference to the dense forest around the mountain that confused visitors when they entered.[6]:39
The Chagga are said to have descended from various Bantu groups who migrated from elsewhere in Africa to the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro, a migration that began around the start of the eleventh century.[3] While the Chaga are Bantu-speakers, their language has a number of dialects somewhat related to Kamba, which is spoken in southeast Kenya.[3] One word they all have in common is Mangi, meaning 'king' in Kichagga.[7] The British called them chiefs as they were deemed subjects to the British crown, thereby rendered unequal.[8]
Mandara, Sultan of the Chagga, Moshi.
European travelers to Kilimanjaro in the late 19th and early 20th centuries questioned some Chagga kings about the origins of their respective clans and recorded the kings' responses in detail. For instance, Karl Peters was informed by Mangi Marealle of Marangu in the 1890s that the Wamarangu originated from Ukamba, the Wamoshi from Usambara, but that the Wakibosho had always been on the mountain. Peters also mentions that Capt. Kurt Johannes, a local serving German officer at the time, claimed that the Wakibosho were Maasai descendants.[9]
Chief Meli, 1890s.
Those claimed that some of them were of Maasai, Usambara, and Kamba origins, very Few mangis of today would claim that, including those of the oldest clans, who are proud of their long history that predates the arrival of those who would later become the royal clans, claim that their royal clan originated on the mountain from a particular other location or admit to having blood other than Chagga. Given that acknowledging one's origins may be perceived as undermining the Chagga's historical claim to the land. Alternatively, it's possible that those early interrogators by the Europeans were oversimplified the responses they received or used leading questions to be more precise.[9]
In Chaggaland today, oral traditions are clear as to when a branch of a clan split off and moved to live elsewhere on the volcano, but that branch itself hardly ever acknowledges where it came from and its history begins with the founding of the branch in its new land; it's possible that by a similar process, clan histories naturally start with the ancestors' arrival on Kilimanjaro. Ex-Mangi Lemnge of Mamba, for instance, is perculiar in today's society because he claims to be of mixed Chagga and Masai heritage and is married to a wife who is of mixed Chagga and European stock, making their children one of the mountain's most intriguing minglings. Although Orombo's descendants dispute this, some Chagga claim that the legendary chief of the past, Orombo of Keni (now a portion of Keni-Mriti-Mengwe), was of Maasai descent. A fascinating local legend claims that a Masai tribe from the west entered Kibongoto, divided their clan, and sent their sons to various regions of the mountain, where they all rose to the position of mangi.[9]
The histories of each Chagga state contain clues as to which clans sprang "from the mountain," which were "dropped there," which originated on the plains, or traveled in an easterly or westerly manner. Quite a bit of Chaggaland is still unknown, especially up in the high forest where the remains of ancient shrines are found and where it is rumored that plantings of masale, the sacred Chagga plant, indicate the paths that small people, or pygmies, long ago traveled. The ruins of stone-wall enclosures lie unexplored in the upper mitaa's rocky parts; they may well add to our understanding of the larger, more accessible enclosures on the middle slopes of certain chiefdoms. When the Chagga traveled here in the past, they used caves on the high track that circles the back of the mountain for shelter, but we are unsure of their exact purpose at this time.[9]
The vast belt of wild olives that come out of nowhere in the forest on the bare northern side of the mountain is one tree that has not yet been well examined. It is possible that this land was once cleared and inhabited by Chagga because, per a silviculturalist's theory, the Kilimanjaro forest regenerates itself using olive trees. It is plausible that the forebears who are so frequently claimed to have "come from the mountain" actually originated on this north side before moving to where their descendants currently live on the south side.[9]
Language, physiognomy, custom, and house-making conceal more clues. The Kichagga language is evolving so quickly that to the Chagga of today, the language as it was used even 20 years ago sounds practically "classical." This is due in part to natural factors, such as the acquisition of new words, and in part to factors related to political authority, such as how Machame in the west and Marangu in the middle zone each disseminated their respective standard languages among the chiefdoms nearby. However, remnants of ancient, undeveloped settlement in some parts of the upper mitaa still maintain their distinctive dialects of Kichagga, and, most remarkably and productively for linguistic research, Ngasseni (now a part of Usseri) continues to speak a language that is distinctly distinct from Kichagga and virtually unintelligible to others in the same kingdom.[9]
Similar origin indicators can be found in customs exclusive to particular clans or mitaa. In the mitaa of the ancient Samake, Nguni, and Kyuu, a special kind of cursing stone was employed, and there was fire worship that seemed to be older, different, and more magical than the fire ceremonies that the Usambaras introduced into Kibosho; in Kahe, male and female clay idols were made and were used for cursing by the Arusha Chini folk; and the ancient Mtui clan of Marangu maintained its power. The fact that the first ancestors arrived with a variety of tools—sometimes bows and arrows, sometimes spears—and that clan memories preserve whether they were hunters, livestock keepers, or cultivators may be crucial.[9]
This type holds clues to the farther past. Zones of widespread custom gradually grew out of this. In general, the similarities in customs and spoken Kichagga dialects across the entire central stretch of chiefdoms, from the Weru Weru River on the west to the Mriti hills on the east, served as a unifying force. When one crossed the Weru Weru in the west or the Mriti hills in the east, a significant difference emerged. All the while, circumcision was practiced. Initiation, however, was a peculiar blossoming in the center zone and involved teaching tribal lore using symbols carved on a special stick (Kich. mregho) and secret terms of speaking for use in the face of foes (Kich. ngasi).[9]
East of this zone, a type of mregho is found in Ngasseni, and a very simple variety is found in Mkau. West of this zone, as will be seen, there is oral evidence to suggest that initiation was introduced and then abandoned as a political act to forestall reprisals in one of the major inter-chiefdom feuds on the mountain. At the Weru Weru basin, the method of building houses begins to change: east of it, the round beehive houses are thatched from top to bottom; west of it, they are increasingly built with roofs starting at a four-foot spring from the ground, so that moving west from Kilimanjaro, through Meru and Arusha, the houses more and more resemble the bomas of the Maasai. The dwellings in Moshi Chiefdom are a hotch-potch of architectural styles, some with roofs that are four feet off the ground and others that are higher than anywhere else in the mountain.[9]
According to outside evidence, many Chagga originated mostly in the northeastern region. While some did so, possibly particularly when the Galla were migrating from the north and pressing people in general before them, it appears more likely that the journey was a natural one. On the borders of Chaggaland, the Masai moved into the western, the Pare into the central zones, and Kikuyu squatters moved into the north side of the mountain until they were evicted as a result of Mau Mau troubles in 1954. Kamba and Masai move in naturally today into the eastern areas, the former to settle and the latter to graze. People used to come from the north, coming from Taita and the Kamba hills; the east, coming from the Usambaras; and the south, maybe coming from Unyamwezi and the Nguu highlands.[9]
Another factor supporting the idea that the arrival of people from the northeast may merely be a broad generalization is the fact that other East African tribes in the Kilimanjaro region have a history of ascending from the south, driving others north before them. According to legend, some Kamba left their former home on Kilimanjaro and went up from the south. For instance, the Kamba are supposed to have been forced up from Shikiani to avoid the Wadoe tribes, who were allegedly cannibalistic. Additionally, some Wanika has left their ancestral home in Rombo, Chaggaland, and moved from the southwest. According to Chagga ora legends, some Meru arrived from the east from their resting spot en route to Mount Meru.[10]
According to legend, the Usambara Kilindi dynasty came up from the Nguu Mountains in the south. The idol that Krapf discovered the coastal Wanika using may have originated in Kahe. The Wanika is reported to have departed Kilema, traveled to Rombo, and then moved to the coast. For further information, see von der Decken's description of this Wanika emigration to the coastal regions behind Mombasa, which he attributes to the rule of Munie Mkoma (Mangi Rongoma) of Kilema.[10]
Other clues can be discovered in the routes traveled by those who, according to Chagga oral traditions, crossed Kilimanjaro, including pygmies or "little people," those who are remembered as being distinct from Chagga and having thick necks, and Swahilis. According to legend, the pygmies (Kich. Wakoningo) crossed the mountain from east to west before continuing to the Congo Basin. Although there is a story found only in Uru about similarly unique visitors who traveled from the opposite direction, from the west, in search of lumber for King Solomon, the little people did move from east to west across the mountain.[10]
The Ongamo had a large effect on Chaga culture. They borrowed several practices from them, including female circumcision, the drinking of cattle blood, and age sets. By the second half of the nineteenth century, the Ongamo were increasingly acculturated into the Chaga. The Chaga god "Ruwa" resulted from the combination of the Chaga's concept of a creator god with the Ongamo's concept of the life giving sun.[3]
A Chagan cave (modified) to hide during tribal wars
The following are very tenuous, unproven signs that the "little" people were Portuguese: the straightforward ascent from the coast; the closeness of Ngeruke; the ironworks of Koyo reached via Kilimanjaro by Bwana Kheri; the male and female idols, still made in Kahe today and still used for magic by the Arusha Chini folk, who bring them upon request, for cursing as far as Arusha Juu (the modern Arusha). According to the King Solomon account recorded in Uru, this tradition is an old one that dates back to the period before people moved from Arusha Chini to Arusha Juu.[10] Regarding the breastwork between Kilema and Usseri, it is possible that Bwana Kheri was referring to the three adjacent large stone-wall enclosures, or fortresses, that Mangi Orombo had constructed in Keni, the mountain's first structure of this scale. However, we don't know if Orombo built on top of earlier traces left by others, possibly the Portuguese.[10]
Munie Mkoma from Pangani, who may have begun the tradition if Mangi Rongoma of Kilema was a Swahili, may have been the original. A line of comparable connections in many chiefdoms was started by Mangi Mamkinga of Machame's confidence in his resident Swahili Munie Nesiri four generations later, in 1848. These signs seem to indicate that the Chagga's origins are more complicated than those of the Taita, who, in response to Rebmann's inquiry, stated that they had traveled thirty days north.[10]
The Pare, Taveta, and Taita peoples had been the chief suppliers of iron to the Chaga.[3] The demand for iron increased from the beginning of the nineteenth century because of military rivalries among the Chaga rulers.[3] It is likely that there was a connection between this rivalry and the development of long-distance trade from the coast to the interior of the Pangani River basin, suggesting the Chagga's contacts with the coast may have dated to about the end of the eighteenth century.
The development of numerous Chagga countries, as well as the sum of their histories, is one of Kilimanjaro's internal histories. Because each of the mitaa or parishes of today—there are over 100 of them—represents the amalgamation of two or three former mitaa, long-established independent units of earlier periods, with the exception of new territories recently opened up on the western and eastern wings and on the lower mountain slopes. In the minds of the elderly Chagga, these are still actual living things.[10] The Chagga states, which by 1964 numbered fifteen, are what old men mean when they refer to "the countries of Kilimanjaro"; yet, inside each chiefdom, each old mtaa is referred to as a "country" when they speak of the past.[10]
In this pre-colonial world of the past, one enters, there were fewer Chagga people, more land was available, and distances were vast in comparison to the world of Kilimanjaro, which has decreased due to the advent of the modern truck, bus, and motorcar. Over a major portion of Kilimanjaro, however, the pace of the human foot is still used to measure distance.[10]
Ngata for protecting the head when carrying bananasDracaena fragrans, called Masale in Kichagga is a sacred plant for the Chagga Goat barn / kiriwa kya mburu Various Chaga Dishes
Who is a Chaga?
A chaga is a person who has both parents as Chaga or has either one of the parents having a Chaga origin or can trace his/her origins from chagas lineage.
Ethnic Chaga is a term generally used to describe a person of Chaga parentage and background who does not necessarily practice Chagas traditional activities but still identifies with Chagas culturally. The term ethnic Chaga does not specifically exclude practicing Chagas traditional activities, but they are usually simply referred to as "Chagas" without the qualifying adjective "ethnic".
The Chaggaland is traditionally divided into a number of small kingdoms known as Umangi. They follow a patrilineal system of descent and inheritance.[3] Their traditional way of life was based primarily on agriculture, using irrigation on terraced fields and oxen manure. Although bananas are their staple food, they also cultivate various crops, including yams, beans, and maize. In agricultural exports, they are best known for their Arabica coffee, which is exported to the global market, resulting in coffee being a primary cash crop.
Mangi Rindi's guard c.1889 Moshi
By 1899 the Kichagga-speaking people on Mount Kilimanjaro were divided into 37 autonomous kingdoms called "Umangi" in Chaga languages.[11] Early accounts frequently identify the inhabitants of each kingdom as a separate "tribe." Although the Chaga are principally located on Mount Kilimanjaro in northern Tanzania, numerous families have migrated elsewhere over the course of the twentieth century. In 1946 the British administration had greatly reduced the number of kingdoms due to large scale reorganization and creation of newly settled land on the lower slopes on the western and eastern slopes of Kilimanjaro.[5]
Around the beginning of the twentieth century, the German colonial government estimated that there were about 28,000 households on Kilimanjaro.[11] In 1988, the Chaga population was estimated at over 800,000 individuals.[1]
Chagga boys c.1880s.
The Chagga Homestead
Masale covered alley, Chagga gate to every homestead c.1890s Chaggaland, Kilimanjaro.
Much of the Chagga lifestyle was shaped by their earth based and ancestral veneration based religious beliefs. Before the arrival of Christianity and Islam, the Chaga practiced a diverse range of faith with a thoroughgoing syncretism.[11] The importance of ancestors is strongly maintained by them to this day. The name of the chief Chaga deity is Ruwa who resides on the top of Mount Kilimanjaro, which is sacred to them. Parts of the high forest contain old shrines with masale plantings, the sacred Chaga plant.[6]
Chagga legends centre on Ruwa and his power and assistance. 'Ruwa' is the Chagga name for their god in Eastern and Central Kilimanjaro, while in the Western region, especially Machame and Masama, the deity was referred to as 'Iruva.' Both names are also Chaga words for "sun."[12] Ruwa is not looked upon as the creator of humankind, but rather as a liberator and provider of sustenance. He is known for his mercy and tolerance when sought by his people.
Every single family lives in the seclusion of their fenced-in farmhouse, or kihamba in Kichagga, even in the most crowded sections of Chaggaland. Each home is surrounded by the Masale plant, a revered symbol of peace and forgiveness in the Chagga culture (Dracaena fragrans). It contains a banana grove, with its long, overhanging fronds shading tomatoes, onions, and various varieties of yam. In the middle of the grove is a round, beehive-shaped house made of mud and covered in grass or banana leaves. The husband's hoe and other equipment can be stored in the sleeping quarters, which can be either a hide or a bed and is close to the door. A fire is burning in the middle of the room, supported by three stones, and bananas are drying in a little loft above the fire.[13][6]:27
Chagga Spearmakers, Kilimanjaro c.1890s.jpg
A blacksmith may be seen hunched over hot embers with his anvil and goatskin bellows in some homesteads, while a woman shaping and firing earthen pots is more infrequently seen in others. Beehives made of hollowed-out tree trunk lengths with stoppers are hung from the trees outside, and hides are stretched on pegs to dry at the door.[6]:27
Typically, neighbors come from the same clan. Interior paths connect the homesteads in the region controlled by that clan, and the entire area is separated from the neighboring homes of the next clan by a larger hedge or an earth bank. A mtaa is made up of numerous clans, and a mtaa is made up of several clans. When Rebmann arrived in Kilema in 1848, he immediately remarked on the order that had taken hold due to the mangi's firm authority. He was enthralled by the prosperity and abilities of the populace, as well as by the pleasant weather and natural beauty of the area.[6]:27
Moshi is a municipality and the capital of Kilimanjaro region in the north eastern Tanzania. As of 2017, the municipality has an estimated population of 201,150 and a population density of 3,409 persons per km2. In the last official census of 2022, the municipality had a population of 221,733. The municipality is situated on the lower slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro, a dormant volcano that is the highest mountain in Africa. The name Moshi has been reported to refer to the smoke that emanates from the nearby mountain. The municipality covers about 59 square kilometres (23 sq mi) and is the smallest municipality in Tanzania by area.
Marangu is a town located in Moshi District of Kilimanjaro Region. it is divided into Marangu East and Marangu west, each with its own village. It is recognized as one of the main gates for climbing Mount Kilimanjaro. it is also famous for being the place where Mangi mkuu of the Chagga Thomas Lenana Marreale was born on June 15, 1915.
Chief Thomas Lenana Marealle II OBE (June 15, 1915 – February 14, 2007) was the Paramount Chief (Mangi Mkuu) of the Chagga people of Tanzania and a politician.
Kilimanjaro Region is one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions. The regional capital and largest city is the municipality of Moshi. With the 3rd highest HDI of 0.640 in the country, Kilimanjaro is one among the top five most developed regions of Tanzania. According to the 2012 national census, the region had a population of 1,640,087, which was lower than the pre-census projection of 1,702,207. For 2002–2012, the region's 1.8 percent average annual population growth rate was the 24th highest in the country. It was also the eighth most densely populated region with 124 people per square kilometer. The most well-known tribes in the Kilimanjaro region are the chagga, rombos, and pare.
Arusha Region is one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions and is located in the northeast of the country. The region's capital and largest city is the city of Arusha. The region is bordered by Kajiado County and Narok County in Kenya to the north, the Kilimanjaro Region to the east, the Manyara and Singida Regions to the south, and the Mara and Simiyu regions to the west. Arusha Region is home to Ngorongoro Conservation Area, a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region is comparable in size to the combined land and water areas of the state of Maryland in the United States.
Meli or Mangi Meli Kiusa bin Rindi Makindara, also known as, , was a king of the Chaga in Moshi, one of the sovereign Chagga states in the late 1890s. Mangi means king in Kichagga. He was hanged by the German colonial government together with 19 other Chagga, Meru, and Arusha leaders. Thomas Kitimbo Kirenga, Sindato Kiutesha Kiwelu, King Ngalami of Siha, Tanzania, King Lolbulu of Meru, King Rawaito of Arusha, King Marai of Arusha, and King Molelia of Kibosho were among the noblemen on 2 March 1900.
Chaga, also Kichaga or Kichagga, is a Bantu dialect continuum spoken by the Chaga people of northern Tanzania, south of Mount Kilimanjaro. They also speak 9 dialects: Kivunjo, Kimarangu, Kirombo, Kimachame, Kisiha, Kikibosho, Kiuru, Kioldimoshi and Kingassa.
The Pare people are members of an ethnic group indigenous to the Pare Mountains of northern Tanzania, part of the Kilimanjaro Region. Historically, Pareland was also known as Vuasu and Vughonu to its inhabitants. The location lies on one of the northern routes of the historic East-African long-distance trade, connecting the hinterland with the coast of the Indian Ocean.
The Rwa or Meru sometimes Rwo are a Bantu ethnic and linguistic group based on the south and eastern slopes of Mount Meru in Meru District of the Arusha Region of Tanzania, the Rwa population is estimated to number 198,000.
Machame or Kingdom of Machame, was a historic sovereign Chagga state located in modern day Machame Kaskazini ward in Hai District of Kilimanjaro Region in Tanzania. Historically, the Machame kingdom was in 1889 referred by Hans Meyer as a great African giant, the kingdom was also the largest and most populous of all the Chagga sovereign states on Kilimanjaro, whose ruler as early as 1849 was reckoned as a giant African king with influence extending throughout all Chagga states except Rombo.
Nathaniel Mtui was a Tanzanian historian of Chagga origin born in 1892 in the mtaa of Mshiri in Marangu, Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. He was a teacher at the Colonial German Lutheran mission in Marangu. He is known for being the first person of Chagga origin to write history of the Chagga people. He wrote the Chaggan history in Kichagga, German, and Swahili from 1913-1916.
Marangu Defences or Chagga Caves are a man-made defence cave system that was erected in the late 18th century as defence of the Chaga from Maasai raids and expanded the system in the late 19th century as part of the Chagga resistance from the German occupation. The caves are located in various locations within Moshi District of Kilimanjaro Region in Tanzania.
Ngalami or Ngalami Mmari, also known as, , was one of many kings of the Chagga. He was the king of one of the Chagga states, namely; the Siha Kingdom in what is now modern Siha District of Tanzania's Kilimanjaro Region from the 1880s to 1900. Mangi means king in Kichagga. Ngalami ruled from the Siha seat of Komboko (Kibong'oto) in the 1880s to 1900 when he was executed in Moshi by the Germans alongside 19 other Chagga, Meru and Arusha leaders. The execution of 19 noblemen and leaders on Friday 2nd of March 1900, included noblemen Thomas Kitimbo Kirenga, Sindato Kiutesha Kiwelu, King Meli of Moshi, King Lolbulu of Meru, King Rawaito of Arusha, King Marai of Arusha, and King Molelia of Kibosho.
Bwana Kheri was a Swahili long-distance caravan trader who lived in present day Mombasa. He is known for guiding into the interior of the present day northern Tanzania after he guided the German missionary Johannes Rebmann of the Anglican Church Missionary Society (CMS) in late 1848.
The Chagga States or Chagga Kingdoms also historically referred to as the Chaggaland were a pre-colonial series of a Bantu sovereign states of the Chagga people on Mount Kilimanjaro in modern-day northern Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. The Chagga kingdoms existed as far back as the 17th century according to oral tradition, a lot of recorded history of the Chagga states, was written with the arrival, and colonial occupation of Europeans in the mid to late 19th century. On the mountain, many minor dialects of one language are divided into three main groupings that are defined geographically from west to east: West Kilimanjaro, East Kilimanjaro, and Rombo. One word they all have in common is Mangi, meaning king in Kichagga. The British called them chiefs as they were deemed subjects to the British crown, thereby rendered unequal. After the conquest, substantial social disruption, domination, and reorganization by the German and British colonial administrations, the Chagga states were officially abolished in 1963 by the Nyerere administration during its third year as the newly independent nation of Tanganyika.
Siha or Kingdom of Siha also sometimes referred to as Kibongoto, was a historic sovereign Chagga state located in modern-day Machame Kaskazini ward in Hai District of Kilimanjaro Region in Tanzania. Siha was located west of the Ushira plateau on Mount Kilimanjaro. The word Mangi means king in Kichagga. The kingdom is known for Mangi Ngalami that was hanged together with 18 other Leaders of the Chagga states including Mangi Meli, by the German colonial regime in 1900.
Rengua or Mangi Rengua Kiwaria Kombe (1784–1837), also known as Mangi Rengua of Machame (Mangi Rengua in Kichagga; was a king of the Chaga in Machame, one of the sovereign Chagga states in the early 1800s. Mangi means king in Kichagga. Rengua founded the Kombe dynasty, which ruled until the 1960s, including through times of anarchy and competing independent clans. He consolidated Machame as one of the most powerful kingdoms in Chaggaland and is considered one of the greatest leaders in Machame history. He is also known for massacring Kibosho initiates at Kinduchi, Lyamuro, prompting the rivalry between Kibosho and Machame.
Kikafu River(Mto Kikafu in Swahili) is located in the northern Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. It begins in Machame Mashariki ward in Moshi District and drains into the Pangani River. The river plays an important part of Chagga history in the Chagga kingdom of Machame.
Weru Weru River(Mto Weru Weru in Swahili) is found in northern Tanzania, in the Kilimanjaro Region. It rises in the Moshi District's Machame Mashariki ward and empties into the Pangani River. The Weru Weru River, like the Kikafu River, is significant to the history of the Chagga in the Machame kingdom.
The Battle of Moshi was fought in what is now modern day city of Moshi in Kilimanjaro Region of Tanzania. The battle was between German Empire led by Von Burlow, and the Moshi kingdom led by Mangi Meli.
1 2 3 4 5 6 Stahl, Kathleen (1964). History of the Chagga people of Kilimanjaro. London: Mouton and Co. ISBN0-520-06698-7.
↑ Bender, Matthew V. "BEING ‘CHAGGA’: NATURAL RESOURCES, POLITICAL ACTIVISM, AND IDENTITY ON KILIMANJARO." The Journal of African History, vol. 54, no. 2, 2013, pp. 199–220. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/43305102. Accessed 11 Apr. 2023.
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