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Gender inequality in North Korea is an important issue[ editorializing ], especially in traditional Korean society where women are mainly confined to the home. However, with the increasing global awareness of women's issues, the demand for comprehensive and reliable information on women and their concerns has also increased. [1]
In traditional Korean society, women's roles were confined to the home. From a young age, women were taught the virtues of subordination and endurance to prepare for their future roles as wife and mother. Women, in general, could not participate in society as men did, and their role was limited to household matters. [2]
Confucianism contains implicit biases towards women that may lead to gender inequality. On the surface, Analects, the classics Confucian, uses “he” much more frequently than “she”, revealing the disproportion wordings based on gender. Fundamentally, Confucianism places emphasis on the ideas of filial piety and natural order. Filial piety refers to the “attitude of obedience, devotion, and care towards one’s parents and elderly family members that is the basis of individual moral conduct and social harmony”. [3] The Korean family view is also deeply influenced by Confucianism. The Koreans have high loyalty to their families. The Korean marriage and family still abide by the Confucian admonition of "loyalty and filial etiquette". The Koreans believe that each person lives in the world and should take on the responsibilities of marriage and family. Family members love each other and seldom betray. Korean family play is a true portrayal of the life of Korean people. Through these family plays, it is seen that the Koreans attach importance to family, and everyone is striving for their family. If a third person destroys others' marriage and family, she/he often fails to get happiness and will eventually be rewarded. Confucian marriage and family ethics play a positive role on the one hand, but on the other hand, there are certain limitations. It mainly manifests in maintaining the idea of "men are superior to women" and boosts the unequal status of men and women in marriage. It restricts women's thoughts and deeds with "three obedience and four virtues". [4]
In the Confucian view, social relations are often unequal exchanges between those in superior and inferior positions. In the ideal Confucian home, women were expected to prioritize obedience above all other virtues, following the command of their fathers as girls, their husbands as wives, and their grown-up sons as widows. This structure reflects the larger societal dynamic of unequal interactions between individuals. [5]
The value that governs the husband–wife relationship is based on a principle of mutuality. The underlying spirit is not dominance but division of labor. It is also important to note that a value of duty looms in Confucian family ethics. If children are involved, the role of the mother should take precedence over the role of wife. [6]
Men and women is expected to have distinct social role that men should go out to work to support family and women stay at home to be caregivers. Besides, a virtuous woman should uphold “three subordinations”: be subordinate to her father before marriage, to her husband after marriage, and to her son in widowhood. Confucianism sees sexuality as taboo and forbid discussion about sex. It advocates sex is regulated by formal arrangements (marriage) and culminates in childbirth, so sex outside of marriage is not condoned. Virtue of chastity is particularly supposed to be abided by women, which means remaining virgin before marriage and fidelity to the husbands, alive or dead. In sexual activity, women are also supposed to keep submissive and less sexually aggressive than men. [7] [8]
When the Soviet Russian troops occupied the area north of the 38th parallel on the Korean peninsula in August 1945, a series of revolutionary decrees were issued. The most significant decree, which is still basic to the foundation of today's North Korean socialist body politic, is the "Decree Concerning the Equal Rights of Men and Women in North Korea" which was proclaimed on 30 July 1946. [9]
The Labor Law and the Gender Equality Rights Law establish the basic framework for defining female roles as workers and mothers in Korean society. The Labor Law promulgated on June 24, 1946, in addition to basic provisions such as the eight hour work system, paid leave, equal pay for equal work, and improving working conditions, including health insurance, also made special provisions for the protection of children and mothers. [10]
Article 11 of the CEDAW, to which North Korea is a party, provides, “States Parties shall take all appropriate measures to eliminate discrimination against women in the field of employment in order to ensure, on a basis of equality of men and women, the same rights.” [11] [12] [13]
Democracy and gender equality were stated as important legal principles in the Constitution of the Republic of Korea first promulgated in 1948. [14] North Korea references gender equality in its socialist constitution, but the de facto social and legal circumstances that women face in the country are far below the de jure status they are purported to enjoy. [15]
The economic crisis that disrupted social stability in North Korea in the 1990s greatly affected the lives of women. They were previously restricted to nationally designated job positions and mainly stayed at home after marriage, mobilized through the Women's Federation. Now, these women are standing at the forefront of the economy in Jiangmadang, doing everything possible to support their families, and the system and its control are being pushed into Jiangmadang. Since the 1980s, as part of the "family work group," their experience of working from home has also enabled them to quickly enter Jiangmadang. [16]
There are no women on the all-important National Defense Commission or the Political Bureau of the Central Committee of the WPK, which determines the party’s policies. As of 2016, according to North Korea’s report to CEDAW, women made up only 10 percent of divisional directors in government bodies, 11.9 percent of judges and lawyers, 4.9 percent of diplomats, and 16.5 percent of officials in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. [17]
In recent years, there has been a notable shift in the role of North Korean women. Traditionally seen as mothers, many North Korean women have become primary breadwinners. A significant number have joined the black market (jangmadang), leading to a surge in mobility as they seek economic opportunities in new cities, regions, and even across national borders. This newfound mobility and economic independence have reshaped the dynamics of contemporary North Korean families. There is an argument to be made that the traditional ideal of women as mothers under a patriarchal system has given way to a new, economically empowered model for women in North Korean society.
In the last 15 years, there have been significantly more female defectors than males. [18]
Confucianism, also known as Ruism or Ru classicism, is a system of thought and behavior originating in ancient China, and is variously described as a tradition, philosophy, religion, theory of government, or way of life. Confucianism developed from teachings of the Chinese philosopher Confucius (551–479 BCE), during a time that was later referred to as the Hundred Schools of Thought era. Confucius considered himself a transmitter of cultural values inherited from the Xia (c. 2070–1600 BCE), Shang (c. 1600–1046 BCE) and Western Zhou dynasties (c. 1046–771 BCE). Confucianism was suppressed during the Legalist and autocratic Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE), but survived. During the Han dynasty, Confucian approaches edged out the "proto-Taoist" Huang–Lao as the official ideology, while the emperors mixed both with the realist techniques of Legalism.
Korean Confucianism is the form of Confucianism that emerged and developed in Korea. One of the most substantial influences in Korean intellectual history was the introduction of Confucian thought as part of the cultural influence from China.
Filial piety is the virtue of exhibiting love and respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors, particularly within the context of Confucian, Chinese Buddhist, and Daoist ethics. The Confucian Classic of Filial Piety, thought to be written around the late Warring States-Qin-Han period, has historically been the authoritative source on the Confucian tenet of filial piety. The book—a purported dialogue between Confucius and his student Zengzi—is about how to set up a good society using the principle of filial piety. Filial piety is central to Confucian role ethics.
Marriage in Korea mirrors many of the practices and expectations of marriages in other societies. Modern practices are a combination of millennia-old traditions and global influences.
The status of women in North Korea is not fully understood outside the country, due to the political isolation of North Korea, the unwillingness of the North Korean authorities to allow foreign investigators access in the country, and the existence of conflicting reports. The official position of the North Korean government is that women have equal rights with men.
Women in South Korea have experienced significant improvements for social changes in recent years, compared to previous times, when Confucianism was deeply imbued in the culture. The economy of South Korea has tremendously improved due to urbanisation, industrialisation, military authoritarianism, democratic reform, and social liberalisation since the late 1960s. Gender roles and gender identities have been modified in response to modernity. More than half of South Korean women are employed. In a 2018 OECD economy survey, it was 56.1%. It is lower than OECD average. More than 25% of married women are employed as full-time workers.
Patriarchy is a social system in which positions of dominance and privilege are held by men. The term patriarchy is used both in anthropology to describe a family or clan controlled by the father or eldest male or group of males, and in feminist theory to describe a broader social structure in which men as a group dominate women and children.
Sexuality in South Korea has been influenced by culture, religion, and westernization. Viewpoints in contemporary society can be viewed as a conflict between the traditional, conservative older generation and the more liberal and 'modern' generation. Due to this conflict, several issues in Korea, including sexual education, homosexuality, and sexual behavior are highly contested.
The role of women in Vietnam was subject to many changes throughout the history of Vietnam. They have taken on varying roles in society, including warriors, nurses, mothers and wives. There have been many advances in women's rights in Vietnam, such as an increase in women representation in government, as well as the creation of the Vietnam Women's Union in 1930.
In 2021, China ranked 48th out of 191 countries on the United Nations Development Programme's Gender Inequality Index (GII). Among the GII components, China's maternal mortality ratio was 32 out of 100,000 live births. In education 58.7 percent of women age 25 and older had completed secondary education, while the counterpart statistic for men was 71.9 percent. Women's labour power participation rate was 63.9 percent, and women held 23.6 percent of seats in the National People's Congress. In 2019, China ranked 39 out of the 162 countries surveyed during the year.
In South Korea, gender inequality is derived from deeply rooted patriarchal ideologies with specifically defined gender-roles. While it remains especially prevalent in South Korea's economy and politics, gender inequality has decreased in healthcare and education.
Feminism in South Korea is the origin and history of feminism or women's rights in South Korea.
Women gained an unprecedented amount of social and legal reforms during the North Korean revolution (1945–1950). The laws promulgated by Kim Il Sung's regime formally accorded women rights that during the Japanese colonial era and previous generations were denied to them. Women were allowed to enter the workforce alongside men and were granted privileges — the right to an education, the right to own and inherit property, the right to political participation — that incorporated women in the public realm. Various women's organizations such as the Korean Democratic Women's League propped up to maintain these laws and nurse the auxiliary needs of the regime. North Korea (DPRK) continued to shoulder neo-Confucian virtues that extolled sacrificial motherhood and added a new emphasis on the nuclear family.
Even in the modern era, gender inequality remains an issue in Japan. In 2015, the country had a per-capita income of US$38,883, ranking 22nd of the 188 countries, and No. 18 in the Human Development Index. In the 2019 Gender Inequality Index report, it was ranked 17th out of the participating 162 countries, ahead of Germany, the UK and the US, performing especially well on the reproductive health and higher education attainment indices. Despite this, gender inequality still exists in Japan due to the persistence of gender norms in Japanese society rooted in traditional religious values and government reforms. Gender-based inequality manifests in various aspects from the family, or ie, to political representation, to education, playing particular roles in employment opportunities and income, and occurs largely as a result of defined roles in traditional and modern Japanese society. Inequality also lies within divorce of heterosexual couples and the marriage of same sex couples due to both a lack of protective divorce laws and the presence of restrictive marriage laws. In consequence to these traditional gender roles, self-rated health surveys show variances in reported poor health, population decline, reinforced gendered education and social expectations, and inequalities in the LGBTQ+ community.
Son preference in China is a gender preference issue underpinned by the belief that boys have more value than girls. In China, the bias towards male over female offspring is demonstrated by gender sex ratio. Whether children are male or female has an economic impact on families, since the financial support that parents receive after their child marries is significantly differentiated by their gender.
The Vietnam Women's Union, otherwise referred to as the VWU or Hội Liên Hiệp Phụ Nữ Việt Nam in Vietnamese, is a socio-political organization that represents and defends the legal and legitimate rights and interests of Women in Vietnam. Originally founded on October 20, 1930, there are currently over 13 million members belonging to 10,472 local women's unions in communes and towns throughout the country. The current president, for the 2017-2022 term, is President Hà Thị Nga and Vice Presidents Bùi Thị Hòa, Trần Thị Hương, Hoàng Thị Ái Nhiên, and Đỗ Thị Thu Thảo. There have been leadership changes throughout this term however. Nguyễn Thị Thu Hà was the president until April 2020 before Hà Thị Nga became the president in May 2020. Nguyễn Thị Tuyết was a Vice President until February 2020. Đỗ Thị Thu Thảo was not named Vice President until July 2018.
Filial piety has been an important aspect of Buddhist ethics since early Buddhism, and was essential in the apologetics and texts of Chinese Buddhism. In the Early Buddhist Texts such as the Nikāyas and Āgamas, filial piety is prescribed and practiced in three ways: to repay the gratitude toward one's parents; as a good karma or merit; and as a way to contribute to and sustain the social order. In Buddhist scriptures, narratives are given of the Buddha and his disciples practicing filial piety toward their parents, based on the qualities of gratitude and reciprocity. Initially, scholars of Buddhism like Kenneth Ch'en saw Buddhist teachings on filial piety as a distinct feature of Chinese Buddhism. Later scholarship, led by people such as John Strong and Gregory Schopen, has come to believe that filial piety was part of Buddhist doctrine since early times. Strong and Schopen have provided epigraphical and textual evidence to show that early Buddhist laypeople, monks and nuns often displayed strong devotion to their parents, concluding that filial piety was already an important part of the devotional life of early Buddhists.
Progressive Confucianism is a term of philosophy coined by Stephen C. Angle in his book Contemporary Confucian Political Philosophy: Toward Progressive Confucianism (2012). Progressive Confucianism refers to a contemporary approach of Confucianism that aims to promote individual and collective moral progress. It explores themes such as political authority and morality, the rule of law, human rights, gender and sexuality, bearing similarities with other contemporary progressive social and political movements.
Naehun is a guidebook for women and the first known book written by a female author in Korea. It is one of the most representative books that reflects the social construction of gender and sexuality based on neo-Confucian ideals in premodern East Asia. It is also a unique historical source material, with various Korean royal court vocabulary describing appropriate behavior for a woman in accordance with neo-Confucian values.
