George Church (geneticist)

Last updated

George Church
George Church in 2023 04.jpg
Church in April 2023
Born
George McDonald Church

(1954-08-28) August 28, 1954 (age 70) [1]
MacDill Air Force Base, Tampa, Florida, U.S. [1]
Alma mater
Known for Synthetic Biology, Woolly Mammoth Revival Project $
Spouse Ting Wu
Awards
Scientific career
Fields Chemistry [3]
Institutions
Thesis Genetic Elements within Yeast Mitochondrial and Mouse Immunoglobulin Introns  (1984)
Doctoral advisor Walter Gilbert [4]
Doctoral students
Other notable students
Website arep.med.harvard.edu/gmc/

George McDonald Church (born August 28, 1954) is an American geneticist, molecular engineer, chemist, serial entrepreneur, and pioneer in personal genomics and synthetic biology. [7] He is the Robert Winthrop Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, Professor of Health Sciences and Technology at Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and a founding member of the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University. [8] [3] [9]

Contents

Through his Harvard lab Church has co-founded around 50 biotech companies. [10] [11] [12] In 2018, the Church lab at Harvard spun off 16 biotech companies in one year. [11] The Church lab works on research projects that are distributed in diverse areas of modern biology like developmental biology, neurobiology, info processing, medical genetics, aging, genomics, gene therapy, diagnostics, chemistry & bioengineering, space biology & space genetics, and ecosystem. [13] Research and technology developments at the Church lab have impacted or made direct contributions to nearly all "next-generation sequencing (NGS)" methods and companies. [14]

In 2017, Time magazine listed him in Time 100, the list of 100 most influential people in the world. [15] [16] [17] In 2022, he was featured among the most influential people in biopharma by Fierce Pharma. [18] As of January 2023, Church serves as a member of the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists' Board of Sponsors. [19]

Early life and education

Church was born on August 28, 1954, on MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa, Florida, and grew up in nearby Clearwater, Florida. [8] [20] [21] [22] He attended high school at the preparatory boarding school Phillips Academy, in Andover, Massachusetts, from 1968 to 1972. [23] He then attended Duke University, where he obtained a B.S. degree in zoology and chemistry in two years. [8]

In the fall of 1973, Church began research work at Duke University with assistant professor of biochemistry Sung-Hou Kim, work that continued a year later in a graduate biochemistry program at Duke on an National Science Foundation fellowship. [21] [24]

As Peter Miller reported on Church for the National Geographic series, "The Innovators":

As a graduate student at Duke ... he used x-ray crystallography to study the three-dimensional structure of "transfer" RNA, which decodes DNA and carries instructions to other parts of the cell. It was groundbreaking research, but Church spent so much time in the lab—up to a hundred hours a week—that he neglected his other classes [in the fall of 1975]. [24]

As a result, Church was not compliant with Duke graduate academic policies, and was withdrawn from the degree program in January 1976. He was told that "[We] hope that whatever problems ... contributed to your lack of success ... at Duke will not keep you from a successful pursuit of a productive career." [24] [25] The work gave rise to publications including a PNAS report with Church as lead author on an early model for molecular interactions between the minor groove of double-stranded DNA and β-ribbons of proteins. [26]

Church returned to graduate work at Harvard University in 1977 under Walter Gilbert, [27] and completed a Ph.D in biochemistry and molecular biology working on mobile genetic elements within introns of yeast mitochondrial and mouse immunoglobulin genes (1984). [4]

Career

After completing his doctoral work, Church spent six months of 1984 at Biogen, the industrial laboratory site where Gilbert had relocated a sizable part of his former Harvard group. [8] This was followed soon after by a Life Sciences Research Foundation postdoctoral fellowship at the University of California, San Francisco with Gail R. Martin, [28] [29] a member of the National Academy of Sciences and joint-discoverer of a technique to extract mouse embryonic stem cells. [30] [31]

Church joined the Harvard Medical School faculty as an assistant professor in 1986. [8] Church is now the Robert Winthrop Professor of Genetics at Harvard Medical School, [32] and a member of the Harvard-MIT health sciences and technology faculty. He was also a founding member of the Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering at Harvard University. [8]

Church has served as director of the Center on Bioenergy Technology at Harvard, funded by a multiyear award from the U.S. Department of Energy,[ when? ][ citation needed ] and of the Center of Excellence in Genomic Science (CEGS) at Harvard, funded by a P50-type award from the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), a part of the National Institutes of Health. [33]

He co-founded Veritas Genetics and its European and Latin American subsidiary, Veritas Intercontinental, with the idea of bringing the benefits of genomic data to millions of people globally.

Church was elected a member of the National Academy of Engineering in 2012 for contributions to human genome sequencing technologies and DNA synthesis and assembly.

In 2018, Church co-founded Nebula Genomics, a personal genomics company that offers a whole-genome sequencing service. [34] The company says that it is developing its own blockchain, with the purpose to improve privacy and security while also giving the possibility to people to have free sequencing in exchange of their genomic and personal data but, despite that, re-identification of people starting from the genetic data could still be possible (DNA itself is a unique identifier), law enforcement could still issue search warrants or subpoena the data and this technology, given also the fact that is hard to implement, could still be vulnerable to data breaches. [35] [36] [37]

In 2021, Church joined as a co-founder of HLTH.network (formerly Shivom), [38] a healthcare blockchain startup which created the world's first global genomics data sharing and analytics marketplace. The HLTH.network aims to be the "world's first base layer protocol for global health data." [39]

George Church Institute of Regenesis: collaboration with BGI Group, China

Since 2007, Church has served on the scientific advisory board of BGI Group, which has been designated as a Chinese military company by the U.S. Department of Defense. [40]

In 2017, BGI established the "George Church Institute of Regenesis", a research collaboration between Church's lab and about a dozen staffers at BGI in China. Dr. Xun Xu, executive director of BGI Group said,

Professor George Church is a legend in this field for his creative achievements in gene editing and genome synthesis. With support of advanced technology platform of China National GeneBank, the collaboration between BGI and Professor Church will bring top resources and talents together to overcome current bottleneck issues and further improve the technology. [41]

On February 18, 2020, Nebula Genomics, a personal genomics company founded by Church, [42] announced that had partnered up with BGI; the saliva samples sent to Nebula Genomics for decoding are then sent by the company to BGI labs in Hong Kong for sequencing. [43] Nebula Genomics said that this partnership was made to bring down the cost of whole-genome sequencing (they offer 30x whole-genome sequencing for $299), since normally it has a cost that makes it inaccessible to most people. [44]

Research

Church is known for his professional contributions in the sequencing of genomes and interpreting such data, in synthetic biology and genome engineering, and in an emerging area of neuroscience that proposes to map brain activity and establish a "functional connectome". Church is known for pioneering the specialized fields of personal genomics and synthetic biology. He has co-founded commercial concerns spanning these areas, and others from green and natural products chemistry to infectious agent testing and fuel production, including Knome, LS9, and Joule Unlimited (respectively, human genomics, green chemistry, and solar fuel companies).

Church and the foundation of genomics

With Walter Gilbert, Church published the first direct genomic sequencing method in 1984. [45] [46] Described in that publication were the cyclic application of fluids to a solid phase alternating with imaging, plus avoidance of bacterial cloning, strategies that are still used in current dominant Next-Generation Sequencing technologies. These technologies began to affect genome-scale sequencing in 2005. [47] Church also helped initiate the Human Genome Project in 1984. [48] He invented the broadly applied concepts of molecular multiplexing and barcode tags, [49] and his genome was the fifth whole human genome ever sequenced. Church was the first person to make his medical records and genome publicly available to researchers. [50] Technology transfer of automated sequencing and software from his Harvard laboratory to Genome Therapeutics Corp. resulted in the first bacterial genome sequence and first commercial genome (the human pathogen Helicobacter pylori ) in 1994. [51] Church was co-inventor of nanopore sequencing in 1995, [52] which is now commercially available (e.g. Oxford Nanopore Technologies), but not in the form embodied in Church's contribution to the original patents. [53]

To aid in the interpretation and sharing of genomes, Church initiated the Personal Genome Project (PGP) in 2005, [54] providing the world's only open-access human genome and trait data sets. [55] [56] [57] Eight trios (mother, father, and child) from the Personal Genome Project are in the process of being chosen to act as the primary genome standards (reference materials) for the NIST+FDA genomeinabottle.org program. [58]

Church furthermore announced his intention to publish his DNA via NFT and use the profits made through its sale to finance research conducted by Nebula Genomics. In June 2022 20 NFTs with his likeness were published instead of the originally planned NFTs of his DNA due to the market conditions at the time. [59] Despite leading to mixed reactions the project is considered to be part of an effort to use the genetic data of 15,000 individuals to support genetic research. By using NFTs the project wants to ensure that the users submitting their genetic data are able to receive direct payment for their contributions. [59] [60]

Synthetic biology and genome engineering

Church has co-developed "genome engineering" technologies since 1997 via either general homologous recombination (recA and lambda-red) [61] or via sequence-specific nucleases. [62] Since 2004, his team has developed the use of DNA array (aka DNA chip) synthesizers for combinatorial libraries and assembling large genome segments. [63] He co-developed Multiplex Automated Genome Engineering (MAGE) and optimized CRISPR/Cas9, discovered by Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier for engineering a variety of genomes ranging from yeast to human. [62] His laboratory's use of CRISPR in human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPS) is the latest contender for precise gene therapy. [64]

His team is the first to tackle a genome-scale change in the genetic code. [65] This was done in a 4.7 million basepair genome of an industrially useful microbe (E. coli) with the goal of making a safer and more productive strain; this strain uses non-proteinogenic amino acids in proteins, and is metabolically and genetically isolated from other species.

He has co-invented several uses for DNA, including detectors for dark matter – Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs), [66] anti-cancer "nano-robots", [67] and strategies for digital data storage that are over a million times denser than conventional disk drives. [68] Together with polymerase, DNA can be used to sense and store variation in photons, nucleotides, or ions. [69]

The BRAIN initiative

Church was part of a team who, in a 2012 scientific commentary, proposed a Brain Activity Map, later named BRAIN Initiative (Brain Research through Advancing Innovative Neurotechnologies). [69] [70] They outlined specific experimental techniques that might be used to achieve what they termed a "functional connectome", as well as new technologies that will have to be developed in the course of the project, [69] including wireless, minimally invasive methods to detect and manipulate neuronal activity, either utilizing microelectronics or synthetic biology. In one such proposed method, enzymatically produced DNA would serve as a "ticker tape record" of neuronal activity. [69] [71]

Gene therapy, ageing, and age reversal

Church worked on engineered adeno-associated viral vectors to evade innate immune and inflammatory responses. The research was published in Science Translational Medicine in 2021 and showed the possibility of a less immunogenic gene therapy with the new TLR9-edited Adeno-associated viruses (AAV) as a safer viral vector. [72] Based on the research, Church and a postdoc from his lab who was also the first-author of the research, co-founded Ally Therapeutics. [73] [74] In 2017, the Church lab at Harvard created adeno-associated virus (AAV)-based single combination gene therapy "for simultaneous treatment of several age-related diseases", detailing the technology's efficacy in mitigating obesity, type II diabetes, heart failure, and renal failure in mice, and the work was published in PNAS . [75] In early 2018, [76] Rejuvenate Bio was launched from the Church lab at the Wyss Institute at Harvard to prevent and treat several age-related diseases in dogs, extending their overall lifespan. [77] In the February 2020, Rejuvenate Bio, the company co-founded by Church, received an exclusive worldwide license from the Harvard Office of Technology Development to commercialise their gene therapy technology. [78] [79] As the co-founder of Rejuvenate Bio in an interview Church said,

Science hasn't yet found a way to make complex animals like dogs live forever, so the next best thing we can do is find a way to maintain health for as long as possible during the aging process. [80]

The research group's progress toward gene therapy for aging has been very limited, however. A 2022 PNAS paper from the Church group has already been the subject of two corrections, one for incomplete conflict of interest disclosures and one for image duplication. [81]

Space biology and space genetics

Church is a faculty member in the Consortium of Space Genetics at Harvard Medical School. [82]

De-extinction, woolly mammoth revival project, and Colossal Biosciences

In March 2015, Church and his genetics research team at Harvard successfully copied some woolly mammoth genes into the genome of an Asian elephant. Using the CRISPR DNA editing technique, his group spliced genetic segments from frozen mammoth specimens, including genes from the ears, subcutaneous fat, and hair attributes, into the DNA of skin cells from a modern elephant. National Geographic , in an article titled "Mammoth-elephant hybrids could be created within the decade. Should they be?", reported,

Church's dreams of engineering a hybrid mammoth first deepened after an interview he did with the New York Times in 2008 about efforts to sequence the woolly mammoth genome.

This marked the first time that woolly mammoth genes had been functionally active since the species became extinct. [83] Their work has not been subject to peer review, however. Church stated that "Just making a DNA change isn't that meaningful. We want to read out the phenotypes." To do that, the team plans to perform further tests to get the hybrid cells into becoming specialized tissues, and from there attempting to turn the hybrid elephant/mammoth skin cells into hybrid embryos that can be grown in artificial wombs.[ citation needed ]

On September 13, 2021, Church founded a biosciences and genetics company, Colossal Biosciences, with entrepreneur Ben Lamm. The company is attempting to use genetic code to revive the woolly mammoth by equipping Asian elephants with mammoth traits. [84] [85]

Laetitia Garriott de Cayeux, founder-CEO of Global Space Ventures and an investor in Colossal Biosciences, said:

In 2014, I asked my friend Elon Musk who he knew who was poised to make profound changes in the field of genomics, and he said: George Church. So in June 2014, I visited George at his lab in Boston. I immediately knew I'd be looking for an opportunity to collaborate with George. Global Space Ventures is excited to be backing Colossal. [86] [87]

Technology transfer, translational impact, and serial entrepreneurship

Through his Harvard lab, Church has co-founded around 50 [10] [12] biotech companies, including Veritas Genetics (human genomics, 2014, with Mirza Cifric, Preston Estep, Yining Zhao, Joe Thakuria), Warp Drive Bio (natural products, 2011, with Greg Verdine and James Wells), Alacris (cancer systems therapeutics, 2010, with Hans Lehrach, Bernhard Herrmann, and Shahid Imran), Knome (human genomics, 2007, with Jorge Conde and Sundar Subramaniam), [88] Pathogenica (microbe and viral NGS diagnostics, 2009, with Yemi Adesokan), [89] AbVitro (immunomes, 2010, with Francois Vigneault), [90] Gen9 Bio (synthetic biology, 2009, with Joseph Jacobson and Drew Endy), EnEvolv (Genome Engineering), Joule Unlimited (SolarFuels, 2007, with Noubar Afeyan and David Berry), LS9 (green chemistry, 2005, with Chris Somerville, Jay Keasling, Vinod Khosla, Noubar Afeyan, and David Berry), [91] [92] [93] and ReadCoor (spatial biology, 2016, with Richard Terry and Evan R. Daugharthy). [94]

Church spearheaded the concept and implementation of open access sequencing hardware [95] and shareable human medical data. [57] He has noted the potential for re-identification of human research participants and the tendency for consent forms to be opaque – proposing an alternative "open consent" mechanism. [55] [56] He has participated in the Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues, [96] cautioning about the risk of synthetic DNA and proposing risk-reduction via licensing and surveillance. [97] [98] His laboratory has a major bio-safety engineering focus. [65]

Church at TED 2010, picture by Steve Jurvetson George Church at TED.jpg
Church at TED 2010, picture by Steve Jurvetson

Support of open education

Church has been an early advocate of online, open education since 2002.[ citation needed ] He is advisor to the Personal Genetics Education Project [99] and has spent a day teaching at The Jemicy School. [100] He has championed citizen science, especially in the fields of synthetic biology and personal genomics. [56] Since 2008, his team has been hosting an annual Genomes, Environments and Traits (GET) Conference with free online videos. [101]

Rapid Deployment Vaccine Collaborative

Church is a member of the Rapid Deployment Vaccine Collaborative (RaDVaC), a group formed early in the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic to create an easily produced, free and open-source vaccine for self-administration. [102]

Controversies

Church was partly funded from 2005 to 2007 by the nonprofit Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation. [103]

Church faced criticism for his response to a question from Der Spiegel where he speculated that it could be technically possible to make a Neanderthal by reconstructing its DNA and modifying living human cells accordingly. [104] Church pointed out that he was not working on such a project. [105] [106]

In his science and popular efforts, Church has promoted open access genome sequencing and shareable human medical data, as well as online, open education and citizen science.

Church authored the 2012 New Scientist's "top science book", Regenesis: How Synthetic Biology Will Reinvent Nature and Ourselves with Ed Regis. [107] [108] He has participated in news interviews and videos including at TED, TEDx, [109] [110] [111] and TEDMED venues, at PBS's Charlie Rose, [112] Faces of America, and NOVA, as well as at PopSci, EG, and The Colbert Report. [113] [114] He is a regular contributor to Edge.org publications and videos [115] and is a member of the Xconomists, an ad hoc team of editorial advisors for the tech news and media company, Xconomy. [116]

In 2015, Jeneen Interlandi wrote an article on Church for Popular Science titled "The Church Of George Church: From reviving extinct species to hunting for dark matter, can a single scientist transform biology—and our lives?", where she states:

Like an engineer, he (George Church) tends to see the universe not as a disparate set of mysteries but as a machine with a vast array of buttons and levers, each begging to be pushed and pulled. [117]

Awards and honors

Church has received accolades including election to the National Academy of Sciences (in 2011), [8] [118] and the National Academy of Engineering (in 2012). [119] He received the American Society for Microbiology Promega Biotechnology Research Award and the Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science of the Franklin Institute. [120] He authored the NewScientist "top science book", Regenesis (on synthetic biology) with Ed Regis.

Other honors include the Triennial International Steven Hoogendijk Award in 2010 and the Scientific American Top 50 twice (for "Designing artificial life" in 2005 and "The $1000 genome" in 2006). [121] [122] Newsweek picked Church for their 2008 "Power of Ideas" recognition in the category of Medicine (for the Personal Genome Project). [123] In September 2010, Church was honored for his work in genetics with the Mass High Tech All-Star Award. [124]

He is a member of the Research Advisory Board of SENS Research Foundation. [125]

Personal life

Church is married to fellow Harvard Medical School faculty member in genetics Ting Wu. [126]

Church has been outspoken in his support of following a vegan lifestyle, for reasons concerned with health, and with environmental and moral issues. When asked about his dietary choice, Church replied, "I've been vegan off-and-on since 1974 when I was inspired by participating in an MIT nutritional study, and quite strictly since 2004." He goes on to elaborate 4 reasons:

medical (cholesterol in fish & dairy), energy conservation (up to 20-fold impact), cruelty ("organic" animals are deprived of medicines that humans use), and risks of spreading pathogens (not just the flu) ... [noting that] veganism is an issue for which personal and global love of life, health and wealth align. It's a pity to lose parts of our humanity and planet just due to a lack of recipes. [127]

George identifies as a sentientist. [128] Sentientism is a naturalistic worldview that grants moral consideration to all sentient beings.

In the context of the Personal Genome Project, journalists at Forbes and Wired have noted Church's openness about his health issues, including dyslexia, narcolepsy, and high cholesterol (one of the motivations for his vegan diet). [129] [130] Church has many of his best ideas during the brief naps caused by his narcolepsy, and therefore does not treat it. [131]

Church collaborated with transhumanist entrepreneur James Clement on the Supercentenarian Research Study, which aims to sequence the genomes of supercentenarians in hopes of discovering potential genetic factors behind their longevity. [132] As of 2023, he is part of the Enhanced Games scientific and ethical advisory commission. [133] [134]

Further reading

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genome</span> All genetic material of an organism

In the fields of molecular biology and genetics, a genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA. The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as regulatory sequences, and often a substantial fraction of junk DNA with no evident function. Almost all eukaryotes have mitochondria and a small mitochondrial genome. Algae and plants also contain chloroplasts with a chloroplast genome.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human genome</span> Complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans

The human genome is a complete set of nucleic acid sequences for humans, encoded as the DNA within each of the 24 distinct chromosomes in the cell nucleus. A small DNA molecule is found within individual mitochondria. These are usually treated separately as the nuclear genome and the mitochondrial genome. Human genomes include both protein-coding DNA sequences and various types of DNA that does not encode proteins. The latter is a diverse category that includes DNA coding for non-translated RNA, such as that for ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA, ribozymes, small nuclear RNAs, and several types of regulatory RNAs. It also includes promoters and their associated gene-regulatory elements, DNA playing structural and replicatory roles, such as scaffolding regions, telomeres, centromeres, and origins of replication, plus large numbers of transposable elements, inserted viral DNA, non-functional pseudogenes and simple, highly repetitive sequences. Introns make up a large percentage of non-coding DNA. Some of this non-coding DNA is non-functional junk DNA, such as pseudogenes, but there is no firm consensus on the total amount of junk DNA.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genomics</span> Discipline in genetics

Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to genetics, which refers to the study of individual genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of all of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Genome project</span> Scientific endeavours to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism

Genome projects are scientific endeavours that ultimately aim to determine the complete genome sequence of an organism and to annotate protein-coding genes and other important genome-encoded features. The genome sequence of an organism includes the collective DNA sequences of each chromosome in the organism. For a bacterium containing a single chromosome, a genome project will aim to map the sequence of that chromosome. For the human species, whose genome includes 22 pairs of autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes, a complete genome sequence will involve 46 separate chromosome sequences.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Molecular genetics</span> Scientific study of genes at the molecular level

Molecular genetics is a branch of biology that addresses how differences in the structures or expression of DNA molecules manifests as variation among organisms. Molecular genetics often applies an "investigative approach" to determine the structure and/or function of genes in an organism's genome using genetic screens. 

<span class="mw-page-title-main">BGI Group</span> Chinese genome sequencing company

BGI Group, formerly Beijing Genomics Institute, is a Chinese genomics company with headquarters in Yantian, Shenzhen. The company was originally formed in 1999 as a genetics research center to participate in the Human Genome Project. It also sequences the genomes of other animals, plants and microorganisms.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">DNA sequencing</span> Process of determining the nucleic acid sequence

DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of nucleotides in DNA. It includes any method or technology that is used to determine the order of the four bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. The advent of rapid DNA sequencing methods has greatly accelerated biological and medical research and discovery.

The Personal Genome Project (PGP) is a long term, large cohort study which aims to sequence and publicize the complete genomes and medical records of 100,000 volunteers, in order to enable research into personal genomics and personalized medicine. It was initiated by Harvard University's George M. Church in 2005. As of November 2017, more than 10,000 volunteers had joined the project. Volunteers were accepted initially if they were permanent residents of the US and were able to submit tissue and/or genetic samples. Later the project was expanded to other countries.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Human Genome Project</span> International scientific research project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying, mapping and sequencing all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It started in 1990 and was completed in 2003. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. Planning for the project started after it was adopted in 1984 by the US government, and it officially launched in 1990. It was declared complete on April 14, 2003, and included about 92% of the genome. Level "complete genome" was achieved in May 2021, with only 0.3% of the bases covered by potential issues. The final gapless assembly was finished in January 2022.

Personal genomics or consumer genetics is the branch of genomics concerned with the sequencing, analysis and interpretation of the genome of an individual. The genotyping stage employs different techniques, including single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) analysis chips, or partial or full genome sequencing. Once the genotypes are known, the individual's variations can be compared with the published literature to determine likelihood of trait expression, ancestry inference and disease risk.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">1000 Genomes Project</span> International research effort on genetic variation

The 1000 Genomes Project (1KGP), taken place from January 2008 to 2015, was an international research effort to establish the most detailed catalogue of human genetic variation at the time. Scientists planned to sequence the genomes of at least one thousand anonymous healthy participants from a number of different ethnic groups within the following three years, using advancements in newly developed technologies. In 2010, the project finished its pilot phase, which was described in detail in a publication in the journal Nature. In 2012, the sequencing of 1092 genomes was announced in a Nature publication. In 2015, two papers in Nature reported results and the completion of the project and opportunities for future research.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Whole genome sequencing</span> Determining nearly the entirety of the DNA sequence of an organisms genome at a single time

Whole genome sequencing (WGS) is the process of determining the entirety, or nearly the entirety, of the DNA sequence of an organism's genome at a single time. This entails sequencing all of an organism's chromosomal DNA as well as DNA contained in the mitochondria and, for plants, in the chloroplast.

Complete Genomics is a life sciences company that has developed and commercialized a DNA sequencing platform for human genome sequencing and analysis. The company is a wholly-owned subsidiary of MGI.

The 1000 Plant Transcriptomes Initiative (1KP) was an international research effort to establish the most detailed catalogue of genetic variation in plants. It was announced in 2008 and headed by Gane Ka-Shu Wong and Michael Deyholos of the University of Alberta. The project successfully sequenced the transcriptomes of 1000 different plant species by 2014; its final capstone products were published in 2019.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Exome sequencing</span> Sequencing of all the exons of a genome

Exome sequencing, also known as whole exome sequencing (WES), is a genomic technique for sequencing all of the protein-coding regions of genes in a genome. It consists of two steps: the first step is to select only the subset of DNA that encodes proteins. These regions are known as exons—humans have about 180,000 exons, constituting about 1% of the human genome, or approximately 30 million base pairs. The second step is to sequence the exonic DNA using any high-throughput DNA sequencing technology.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">$1,000 genome</span> Era of predictive and personalized medicine

The $1,000 genome refers to an era of predictive and personalized medicine during which the cost of fully sequencing an individual's genome (WGS) is roughly one thousand USD. It is also the title of a book by British science writer and founding editor of Nature Genetics, Kevin Davies. By late 2015, the cost to generate a high-quality "draft" whole human genome sequence was just below $1,500.

Jay Shendure is an American scientist and human geneticist at the University of Washington. He is a professor in the Department of Genome Sciences at the University of Washington School of Medicine and an Affiliate Investigator in the Human Biology Division at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center. Shendure's research is focused on developing and applying new technologies in genomics. In 2005, his doctoral research with George M. Church resulted one of the first successful proof-of-concepts of next-generation DNA sequencing. Shendure's research group at the University of Washington pioneered exome sequencing and its application to Mendelian disorders, a strategy that has been applied to identify hundreds of disease-causing genes. Other notable accomplishments of Shendure's laboratory include the first whole genome sequencing of a human fetus using samples obtained non-invasively from the parents, and the sequencing of the HeLa genome in agreement with Henrietta Lacks' family.

Nebula Genomics is a personal genomics company based in San Francisco, California. It offers a whole-genome sequencing service.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">MGI (company)</span> Chinese biotechnology company

MGI or MGI Tech is a Chinese biotechnology company, which provides a line of products and technologies that serves the genetic sequencing, genotyping and gene expression, and proteomics markets. Its headquarters are located in Shenzhen, Guangdong, China.

References

  1. 1 2 "Church, George". Biography Reference Bank. The H. W. Wilson Company. 2010. Retrieved December 10, 2011.[ permanent dead link ]
  2. ↑ "Bower Laureates". February 4, 2014. Archived from the original on July 6, 2017. Retrieved September 1, 2022.
  3. 1 2 George Church publications indexed by Google Scholar
  4. 1 2 Church, George (1984). Genetic Elements within Yeast Mitochondrial and Mouse Immunoglobulin Introns (Sequence, Enhancer, Technique) (PhD thesis). Harvard University. OCLC   13285113. ProQuest   303300427.
  5. ↑ "Multiplex genome sequencing and analysis". ProQuest   305001213.
  6. ↑ Cohen, Jon (October 7, 2020). "CRISPR, the revolutionary genetic 'scissors,' honored by Chemistry Nobel". Science | AAAS. Retrieved June 1, 2021.
  7. ↑ "The Future of Synthetic Biology with Prof. George Church". Harvard Alumni Entrepreneurs. September 20, 2020. Archived from the original on September 24, 2022. Retrieved January 12, 2023.
  8. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Nair, P. (2012). "Profile of George M. Church". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 109 (30): 11893–11895. Bibcode:2012PNAS..10911893N. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1204148109 . PMC   3409755 . PMID   22474375.
  9. ↑ George Church's publications indexed by the Scopus bibliographic database. (subscription required)
  10. 1 2 "Newcos GClab". Harvard Molecular Technologies . Archived from the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  11. 1 2 DeFrancesco, Laura (January 1, 2020). "One year, 1 lab, 16 spinouts". Nature Biotechnology. 38 (1): 9–13. doi:10.1038/s41587-019-0369-7. ISSN   1546-1696. PMID   31873218. S2CID   209461325.
  12. 1 2 Church, George M.; Philippidis, Alex; Davies, Kevin (April 2022). "Thirty-Eight Special: George Church Pushes the Biotech Envelope". Gen Biotechnology. 1 (2): 127–132. doi:10.1089/genbio.2022.29021.gch. S2CID   248305602.
  13. ↑ "GC-Main". Harvard Molecular Technologies . August 11, 2021. Archived from the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  14. ↑ "George M. Church, Ph.D." National Academy of Future Physicians and Medical Scientists. July 20, 2022. Archived from the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  15. ↑ "George Church: The World's 100 Most Influential People".
  16. ↑ "Harvard Geneticist George Church Gives Moving Toast At 2017 Time 100 Gala | Time 100 | Time". YouTube . April 26, 2017.
  17. ↑ "George Church Toasts the 2017 Time 100 Gala".
  18. ↑ "Most influential people in biopharma—the scientists". May 9, 2022.
  19. ↑ "Board of Sponsors". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists . March 30, 2017. Archived from the original on January 13, 2023. Retrieved January 13, 2023.
  20. ↑ Center for Oral History. "George M. Church". Science History Institute.
  21. 1 2 Brock, David C. (March 3, 2008). George M. Church, Transcript of Interviews Conducted by David C. Brock in New Orleans, Louisiana on 3 March 2008 (PDF). Philadelphia, PA: Chemical Heritage Foundation.
  22. ↑ David Ewing Duncan, 2010, "On a Mission to Sequence the Genomes of 100,000 People: The geneticist George Church advises or licenses technology to most companies involved in sequencing", The New York Times , June 7, 2010. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  23. ↑ Alex Salton, 2009, "Geneticist George Church '72 Sought Independence at PA", The Phillipian, April 17, 2009, see "The Phillipian". Archived from the original on February 28, 2015. Retrieved March 2, 2015.. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
  24. 1 2 3 Peter Miller, 2015, "News, The Innovators Project: George Church, The Future Without Limits", National Geographic (online), see . Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  25. ↑ Duke University Graduate School, Office of the Dean, 1976, "Dear Mr. Church ...", January 16, 1976, private letter from W.G. Katzenmeyer, Associate Dean, to George McDonald Church, in the archives of G.M. Church. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
  26. ↑ Church, G M; Sussman, J L; Kim, S H (1977). "Secondary structural complementarity between DNA and proteins". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 74 (4): 1458–1462. Bibcode:1977PNAS...74.1458C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.74.4.1458 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   430798 . PMID   266187.
  27. ↑ Jeffrey Perkel, 2013, "BioTechniques: Celebrating 30 Years of Methods Development", BioTechniques55(5), November 2013, 227–230, see Archived April 2, 2015, at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved March 21, 2014.
  28. ↑ LSRF, 2015, "Resources, 1983 Fellow George Church", see Archived July 12, 2018, at the Wayback Machine . Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  29. ↑ LSRF, 2015, "Fellows:Alumni, George Church (1984)", see . Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  30. ↑ Elie Dolgin, 2009, "Stem cell rat race", The Scientist , April 1, 2009. Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  31. ↑ Martin G (December 1981). "Isolation of a pluripotent cell line from early mouse embryos cultured in medium conditioned by teratocarcinoma stem cells". Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 78 (12): 7634–8. Bibcode:1981PNAS...78.7634M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.78.12.7634 . PMC   349323 . PMID   6950406.
  32. ↑ Heidi Legg, 2014, "Harvard Professor George Church and the future of genomics", at BetaBoston, a Boston Globe site (online), December 25, 2014, see "Harvard Professor George Church and the future of genomics | BetaBoston". Archived from the original on March 6, 2015. Retrieved March 2, 2015.. Retrieved March 2, 2015.
  33. ↑ NHGRI, 2015, Active Centers of Excellence in Genomic Science Awards: Causal Transcriptional Consequences of Human Genetic Variation (P50 HG005550, George M. Church, Harvard University), see . Retrieved February 26, 2015.
  34. ↑ "Nebula Genomics, Partnering with BGI, Sets Industry Standard by Offering 30x Whole-Genome Sequencing for $299". Bloomberg . February 18, 2020. Archived from the original on February 14, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  35. ↑ Weintraub, Karen (November 17, 2018). "Genetics Start-Up Wants to Sequence People's Genomes for Free". Scientific American . Archived from the original on March 3, 2021. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  36. ↑ Molteni, Megan (September 19, 2019). "You Can Soon Get Your DNA Sequenced Anonymously". Wired . Archived from the original on February 14, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  37. ↑ Quinn, Kevin (November 21, 2019). "Privacy Policy". Nebula Genomics . Archived from the original on December 3, 2020. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  38. ↑ "Genomics Pioneer George Church Becomes Co-Founder of Shivom". PharmiWeb.com. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
  39. ↑ "HLTH – The Global Healthcare Ecosystem". hlth.network. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
  40. ↑ url=https://media.defense.gov/2024/Jan/31/2003384819/-1/-1/0/1260H-LIST.PDF
  41. ↑ "BGI Launches George Church Institute".
  42. ↑ "Meet Prof. George Church | Nebula Genomics".
  43. ↑ Whalen, Jeanne; Dwoskin, Elizabeth (July 2, 2020). "California rejected Chinese company's push to help with coronavirus testing. Was that the right move?". Washington Post . Archived from the original on February 14, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  44. ↑ "Nebula Genomics, Partnering with BGI, Sets Industry Standard by Offering 30x Whole-Genome Sequencing for $299". BioSpace . February 18, 2020. Archived from the original on January 18, 2022. Retrieved February 14, 2022.
  45. ↑ Church GM, Gilbert W (1984). "Genomic sequencing". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 81 (7): 1991–1995. Bibcode:1984PNAS...81.1991C. doi: 10.1073/pnas.81.7.1991 . PMC   345422 . PMID   6326095.
  46. ↑ Saluz HP, Jiricny J, Jost JP (1986). "Genomic sequencing reveals a positive correlation between the kinetics of strand-specific DNA demethylation of the overlapping estradiol/glucocorticoid-receptor binding sites and the rate of avian vitellogenin mRNA synthesis". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 83 (19): 7167–71. Bibcode:1986PNAS...83.7167S. doi: 10.1073/pnas.83.19.7167 . PMC   386676 . PMID   3463957. Direct genomic sequencing, first described by Church and Gilbert (15) and further developed in our laboratory (16), overcomes the disadvantages inherent to the use of restriction enzymes.
  47. ↑ Shendure J, Porreca GJ, Reppas NB, Lin X, McCutcheon JP, Rosenbaum AM, Wang MD, Zhang K, Mitra RD, Church GM (2005). "Accurate Multiplex Polony Sequencing of an Evolved Bacterial Genome". Science. 309 (5741): 1728–32. Bibcode:2005Sci...309.1728S. doi: 10.1126/science.1117389 . PMID   16081699. S2CID   11405973.
  48. ↑ Cook-Deegan RM (1989). "The Alta summit, December 1984". Genomics. 5 (3): 661–663. doi:10.1016/0888-7543(89)90042-6. PMID   2613249.
  49. ↑ Church GM, Kieffer-Higgins S (1988). "Multiplex DNA sequencing". Science. 240 (4849): 185–188. Bibcode:1988Sci...240..185C. doi:10.1126/science.3353714. PMID   3353714.
  50. ↑ Srikanth, Anagha (April 19, 2021). "First genomic NFT to be sold for science — and a statement". The Hill . Archived from the original on April 27, 2021. Retrieved February 15, 2022.
  51. ↑ "Capitalizing on the genome". Nature Genetics. 13 (1): 1–5. 1996. doi: 10.1038/ng0596-1 . PMID   8673083.
  52. ↑ Jain, Miten; Olsen, Hugh E.; Paten, Benedict; Akeson, Mark (November 25, 2016). "The Oxford Nanopore MinION: Delivery of nanopore sequencing to the genomics community". Genome Biology. 17 (1): 239. doi: 10.1186/s13059-016-1103-0 . PMC   5124260 . PMID   27887629.
  53. ↑ "Genia Technologies Collaborates with Professors Jingyue Ju at Columbia and George Church at Harvard to Develop a Nanopore-based Sequencing Platform". October 3, 2012. Archived from the original on August 25, 2013.[ full citation needed ]
  54. ↑ Church GM (2005). "The Personal Genome Project". Molecular Systems Biology. 1 (1): E1–E3. doi:10.1038/msb4100040. PMC   1681452 . PMID   16729065.
  55. 1 2 Ian L. Marpuri (April 8, 2013). "Researchers explore genomic data privacy and risk (NIH NHGRI)". Archived from the original on May 27, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
  56. 1 2 3 Angrist M (November 2009). "Eyes wide open: the Personal Genome Project, citizen science and veracity in informed consent". Personalized Medicine. 6 (6): 691–699. doi:10.2217/pme.09.48. PMC   3275804 . PMID   22328898.
  57. 1 2 "Personal Genome Project" . Retrieved May 25, 2013.
  58. ↑ "Okay, You've Sequenced My Genome: Are You Sure You Got it Right?". NGS Leaders. Archived from the original on July 5, 2013. Retrieved June 9, 2013.
  59. 1 2 Jones, Nicola (June 18, 2021). "How scientists are embracing NFTs". Nature. 594 (7864): 481–482. Bibcode:2021Natur.594..481J. doi: 10.1038/d41586-021-01642-3 . PMID   34145410. S2CID   235481285.
  60. ↑ Tangermann, Victor (April 21, 2022). "A Harvard Scientist is Selling his Genetic Code as an NFT". Neoscope ― Futurism. Retrieved February 21, 2023.
  61. ↑ Link AJ, Phillips D, Church GM (1997). "Methods for generating precise deletions and insertions in the genome of wild-type Escherichia coli: Application to open reading frame characterization". Journal of Bacteriology. 179 (20): 6228–6237. doi:10.1128/jb.179.20.6228-6237.1997. PMC   179534 . PMID   9335267.
  62. 1 2 Mali P, Yang L, Esvelt KM, Aach J, Guell M, DiCarlo JE, Norville JE, Church GM (February 15, 2013). "RNA-guided human genome engineering via Cas9". Science. 339 (6121): 823–6. Bibcode:2013Sci...339..823M. doi:10.1126/science.1232033. PMC   3712628 . PMID   23287722.
  63. ↑ Tian J, Gong H, Sheng N, Zhou X, Gulari E, Gao X, Church G (2004). "Accurate Multiplex Gene Synthesis from Programmable DNA Chips" (PDF). Nature. 432 (7020): 1050–4. Bibcode:2004Natur.432.1050T. doi:10.1038/nature03151. hdl: 2027.42/62677 . PMID   15616567. S2CID   4373350.
  64. ↑ Matthew Herper (March 19, 2013). "This Protein Could Change Biotech Forever". Forbes .
  65. 1 2 Isaacs FJ, Carr PA, Wang HH, Lajoie MJ, Sterling B, Kraal L, Tolonen AC, Gianoulis TA, Goodman DB, Reppas NB, Emig CJ, Bang D, Hwang SJ, Jewett MC, Jacobson JM, Church GM (2011). "Precise Manipulation of Chromosomes in vivo Enables Genome-wide Codon Replacement". Science. 333 (6040): 348–53. Bibcode:2011Sci...333..348I. doi:10.1126/science.1205822. PMC   5472332 . PMID   21764749.
  66. ↑ "Revolutionary 'DNA Tracking Chamber' Could Detect Dark Matter". MIT Technology Review . July 2, 2012.
  67. ↑ Belle Dumé (February 17, 2012). "DNA nanorobot delivers drugs". Physics World.
  68. ↑ Robert Lee Hotz (August 16, 2012). "Future of Data: Encoded in DNA". The Wall Street Journal.
  69. 1 2 3 4 Alivisatos AP, Chun M, Church GM, Greenspan RJ, Roukes ML, Yuste R (June 2012). "The Brain Activity Map Project and the Challenge of Functional Connectomics". Neuron . 74 (6): 970–974. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.06.006. PMC   3597383 . PMID   22726828.
  70. ↑ John Markoff (February 17, 2013). "Obama Seeking to Boost Study of Human Brain". The New York Times.
  71. ↑ Zamft BM, Marblestone AH, Kording K, Schmidt D, Martin-Alarcon D, Tyo K, Boyden ES, Church G (August 2012). "Measuring Cation Dependent DNA Polymerase Fidelity Landscapes by Deep Sequencing". PLoS ONE . 7 (8): e43876. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...743876Z. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0043876 . PMC   3425509 . PMID   22928047.
  72. ↑ Chan, Ying Kai; et al. (2021). "Engineering adeno-associated viral vectors to evade innate immune and inflammatory responses". Science Translational Medicine. 13 (580). doi:10.1126/scitranslmed.abd3438. PMC   8409505 . PMID   33568518.
  73. ↑ "Biotech entrepreneur George Church launches gene therapy startup to design safer viral vectors". Fierce Biotech. February 10, 2021.
  74. ↑ "Biotech entrepreneur George Church launches gene therapy startup to design safer viral vectors". February 12, 2021.
  75. ↑ Davidsohn, Noah; Pezone, Matthew; Vernet, Andyna; Graveline, Amanda; Oliver, Daniel; Slomovic, Shimyn; Punthambaker, Sukanya; Sun, Xiaoming; Liao, Ronglih; Bonventre, Joseph V.; Church, George M. (November 19, 2019). "A single combination gene therapy treats multiple age-related diseases". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 116 (47): 23505–23511. Bibcode:2019PNAS..11623505D. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1910073116 . PMC   6876218 . PMID   31685628.
  76. ↑ "Rejuvenate Bio is Reversing Age-Related Diseases to Increase Healthspan". October 5, 2021.
  77. ↑ "Rejuvenate Bio". Rejuvenate Bio.
  78. ↑ "Harvard's Wyss Institute launches start-up Rejuvenate Bio to help dogs live longer, healthier lives" (Press release).
  79. ↑ "Rejuvenate Bio launches to help dogs live longer, healthier lives".
  80. ↑ "Rejuvenate Bio launches to help dogs live longer, healthier lives". February 6, 2020.
  81. ↑ Jaijyan, Dabbu Kumar; Selariu, Anca; Cruz-Cosme, Ruth; Tong, Mingming; Yang, Shaomin; Stefa, Alketa; Kekich, David; Sadoshima, Junichi; Herbig, Utz; Tang, Qiyi; Church, George; Parrish, Elizabeth L.; Zhu, Hua (May 17, 2022). "New intranasal and injectable gene therapy for healthy life extension". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 119 (20): e2121499119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11921499J. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2121499119 . ISSN   0027-8424. PMC   9171804 . PMID   35537048.
  82. ↑ "George M. Church, Ph.D. | Consortium for Space Genetics". Archived from the original on September 25, 2022. Retrieved September 6, 2022.
  83. ↑ Sarah Fecht (March 24, 2014), Woolly Mammoth DNA Successfully Spliced into Elephant Cells, Popular Science
  84. ↑ Michael Greshko (September 13, 2021). "Mammoth-elephant hybrids could be created within the decade. Should they be?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on September 13, 2021.
  85. ↑ Zimmer, Carl (September 13, 2021). "A New Company With a Wild Mission: Bring Back the Woolly Mammoth". The New York Times. Retrieved October 26, 2021.
  86. ↑ "The Science of Genetics. The Business of Discovery". August 6, 2021.
  87. ↑ "Global Space Ventures backs Colossal's seed round". September 13, 2021.
  88. ↑ Dickinson, Boonsri (June 10, 2010). "Geneticist George Church: Sequencing human genome 'high priority' for China". Smart Planet. Archived from the original on August 14, 2010. Retrieved August 18, 2010.
  89. ↑ Julia Karow (July 6, 2010). "Pathogenica Bets on Next-Gen Sequencing for Fast, Multiplexed Pathogen Detection". GenomeWeb. Retrieved September 6, 2011.
  90. ↑ Luke Timmerman (January 11, 2016). "Juno Acquires Harvard Spinout, AbVitro, For $125M To Discover More Cancer Immunotherapies". Forbes. Retrieved November 8, 2017.
  91. ↑ Duncan, David (June 7, 2010). "Scientist at Work: George M. Church – On a Mission to Sequence the Genomes of 100,000 People". The New York Times. Retrieved August 18, 2010.
  92. ↑ "Biofuel startup raises $5 million". San Francisco Business Times . March 12, 2007.
  93. ↑ "Tech Transfer, Advisory Roles, and Funding Sources".
  94. ↑ "10x Genomics Signs Agreement to Acquire ReadCoor". Genomics Research from Technology Networks. Retrieved March 10, 2022.
  95. ↑ "Open, Affordable Sequencing". Archived from the original on May 21, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
  96. ↑ "Presidential Commission for the Study of Bioethical Issues". July 8, 2010. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013.
  97. ↑ "A Synthetic Biohazard Non-proliferation Proposal" . Retrieved May 25, 2013.
  98. ↑ Church G (November 24, 2005). "Let us go forth and safely multiply". Nature. 438 (7067): 423. Bibcode:2005Natur.438..423C. doi: 10.1038/438423a . PMID   16306966. S2CID   4318315.
  99. ↑ "Personal Genetics Education Project" . Retrieved May 25, 2013.
  100. ↑ "Jemicy School for Dyslexia, David Malin Lecture". November 11, 2010. Archived from the original on October 14, 2013.
  101. ↑ "Genomes, Environments and Traits (GET) Conference". Archived from the original on April 20, 2013. Retrieved May 25, 2013.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  102. ↑ "Some scientists are taking a DIY coronavirus vaccine, and nobody knows if it's legal or if it works" . Retrieved March 15, 2021.
  103. ↑ "Scientist George Church talks about accepting donations from Jeffrey Epstein – 60 Minutes – CBS News". www.cbsnews.com. December 8, 2019. Retrieved November 11, 2023.
  104. ↑ "How DNA will be construction material of the future". Der Spiegel . January 18, 2013.
  105. ↑ Gary J. Remal (January 22, 2013). "Harvard professor blasts Neanderthal clone baby rumor on Web". Boston Herald.
  106. ↑ "Spiegel responds to brouhaha over neanderthal clone". Der Spiegel. January 23, 2013.
  107. ↑ Church George (2012). Regenesis. New York: Basic Books. ISBN   978-0-465-02175-8.
  108. ↑ "The top 10 science books of 2012". New Scientist .
  109. ↑ TEDx, 2012, "TEDxCambridge: George Church on genomics and human diversity", March 21, 2012, see . Retrieved March 4, 2014.
  110. ↑ TEDx, 2013, "Hybridizing with extinct species: George Church at TEDxDeExtinction", May 8, 2013, see . Retrieved March 4, 2014.
  111. ↑ TEDx, 2013, "DNA [as detectors], George-Church-at-TEDxCERN", May 24, 2013, see . Retrieved March 4, 2014.
  112. ↑ charlierose.com, 2009, "Personalized Medicine, ...Guests/Affiliations: ...Steven Pinker, Harvard University, George Church, Harvard Medical School, Personal Genome Project", air date June 19, 2009, see "Charlie Rose - History". Archived from the original on December 19, 2013. Retrieved December 24, 2013. and "Unknown". Archived from the original on April 2, 2015.. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
  113. ↑ "Church Lab News" . Retrieved September 8, 2010.
  114. ↑ Harley, Liz (May 18, 2016). "When George Church met Stephen Colbert". Archived from the original on December 27, 2016. Retrieved December 26, 2016.
  115. ↑ "Church Writings, Master Class and Videos on Edge.org". Archived from the original on September 22, 2011. Retrieved May 25, 2013.
  116. ↑ "About Our Mission, Team, and Editorial Ethics". Xconomy. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  117. ↑ "The Church of George Church". May 27, 2015.
  118. ↑ "National Academy of Sciences Members and Foreign Associates Elected". National Academies. 2011. Archived from the original on March 1, 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
  119. ↑ "National Academy of Engineering Elects 66 Members and 10 Foreign Associates". National Academies. 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
  120. ↑ "Bower Award and Prize for Achievement in Science". Franklin Institute. 2011. Archived from the original on March 26, 2011. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
  121. ↑ "American Society for Microbiology honors George M. Church". June 8, 2009.
  122. ↑ "International Steven Hoogendijk Award". 2010. Archived from the original on May 15, 2013.
  123. ↑ "The Power of Ideas". Newsweek . December 19, 2008.
  124. ↑ "All-Star Awards". Mass High Tech. September 8, 2010. Archived from the original on September 2, 2010. Retrieved September 8, 2010.
  125. ↑ Zealley, Ben (March 7, 2013). "SRF's Research Advisory Board Welcomes Dr. George Church" . Retrieved August 18, 2014.
  126. ↑ "Do inventors get enough respect in science?". The Boston Globe . February 7, 2013.
  127. ↑ "George Church". Archived from the original on January 18, 2013. Retrieved February 20, 2017.
  128. ↑ Church, George (February 12, 2019). "A Bill of Rights for the Age of Artificial Intelligence". Medium. OneZero.
  129. ↑ Herper, Matthew (April 27, 2009). "Going To Church". Forbes.
  130. ↑ Thomas Goetz (July 8, 2008). "How the Personal Genome Project Could Unlock the Mysteries of Life". Wired .
  131. ↑ French, Kristen (January 25, 2023). "The Creative Sweet Spot of Dreaming". Nautilus. Retrieved June 27, 2024.
  132. ↑ Harmon, Amy (November 13, 2017). "The Secret to Long Life? It May Lurk in the DNA of the Oldest Among Us". The New York Times. ISSN   0362-4331 . Retrieved April 10, 2021.
  133. ↑ Bailey, Ronald (June 29, 2023). "The Enhanced Olympics: Drugs welcome!". Reason . Retrieved July 8, 2023.
  134. ↑ Kamath, Amit (July 9, 2023). "Games on steroids? Inside an Indian-origin man's plan to organise Enhanced Games". The Indian Express . Retrieved July 10, 2023.
This page is based on this Wikipedia article
Text is available under the CC BY-SA 4.0 license; additional terms may apply.
Images, videos and audio are available under their respective licenses.