Horseshoe

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Horseshoes are commonly made of steel, and are nailed to the underside of the hoof. Horseshoe.jpg
Horseshoes are commonly made of steel, and are nailed to the underside of the hoof.
A variety of horseshoes, including aluminum racing plates (light or dark); there is also a variety of oxshoes at the lower right Variety of horseshoes, including aluminum racing plates and shoes used on cattle in lower right.jpg
A variety of horseshoes, including aluminum racing plates (light or dark); there is also a variety of oxshoes at the lower right

A horseshoe is a product designed to protect a horse hoof from wear. Shoes are attached on the palmar surface (ground side) of the hooves, usually nailed through the insensitive hoof wall that is anatomically akin to the human toenail, although much larger and thicker. However, there are also cases where shoes are glued.

Contents

Horseshoes are available in a wide variety of materials and styles, developed for different types of horses and for the work they do. The most common materials are steel and aluminium, but specialized shoes may include use of rubber, plastic, magnesium, titanium, or copper. [1] Steel tends to be preferred in sports in which a strong, long-wearing shoe is needed, such as polo, eventing, show jumping, and western riding events. Aluminium shoes are lighter, making them common in horse racing where a lighter shoe is desired, and often facilitate certain types of movement; they are often favored in the discipline of dressage. [2] Some horseshoes have "caulkins", "caulks", or "calks": protrusions at the toe or heels of the shoe, or both, to provide additional traction.

The fitting of horseshoes is a professional occupation, conducted by a farrier, who specializes in the preparation of feet, assessing potential lameness issues, and fitting appropriate shoes, including remedial features where required. In some countries, such as the UK, horseshoeing is legally restricted to people with specific qualifications and experience. In others, such as the United States, where professional licensing is not legally required, professional organizations provide certification programs that publicly identify qualified individuals.

When kept as a talisman, a horseshoe is said to bring good luck. [3] A stylized variation of the horseshoe is used for a popular throwing game, horseshoes.

History

A hipposandal, a predecessor to the horseshoe Hipposandal-ermont.jpg
A hipposandal, a predecessor to the horseshoe

Since the early history of domestication of the horse, working animals were found to be exposed to many conditions that created breakage or excessive hoof wear. Ancient people recognized the need for the walls (and sometimes the sole) of domestic horses' hooves to have additional protection over and above any natural hardness. An early form of hoof protection was seen in ancient Asia, where horses' hooves were wrapped in rawhide, leather, or other materials for both therapeutic purposes and protection from wear. [4] From archaeological finds in Great Britain, the Romans appeared to have attempted to protect their horses' feet with a strap-on, solid-bottomed "hipposandal" that has a slight resemblance to the modern hoof boot. [5]

English horseshoes from the 11th to the 19th centuries Horseshoes from C11.jpg
English horseshoes from the 11th to the 19th centuries
Making horseshoes in India Horseshoemaker.jpg
Making horseshoes in India
A hoof boot Easyboot.jpg
A hoof boot
An oversized horseshoe for soft soil to distribute horse's weight Tule horseshoe.jpg
An oversized horseshoe for soft soil to distribute horse's weight

Historians differ on the origin of the horseshoe. [6] Because iron was a valuable commodity, and any worn out items were generally reforged and reused, it is difficult to locate clear archaeological evidence. [7] Although some credit the Druids, there is no hard evidence to support this claim. [6] In 1897 four bronze horseshoes with what are apparently nail holes were found in an Etruscan tomb dated around 400 BC. [8] The assertion by some historians that the Romans invented the "mule shoes" sometime after 100 BC is supported by a reference by Catullus who died in 54 BC. [6] However, these references to use of horseshoes and muleshoes in Rome may have been to the "hipposandal"—leather boots, reinforced by an iron plate, rather than to nailed horseshoes. [9]

Existing references to the nailed shoe are relatively late, first known to have appeared around AD 900, but there may have been earlier uses given that some have been found in layers of dirt. There are no extant references to nailed horseshoes prior to the reign of Byzantine Emperor Leo VI, and by 973 occasional references to them can be found. [9] The earliest clear written record of iron horseshoes is a reference to "crescent figured irons and their nails" in AD 910. [10] There is very little evidence of any sort that suggests the existence of nailed-on shoes prior to AD 500 or 600, though there is a find dated to the fifth century AD of a horseshoe, complete with nails, found in the tomb of the Frankish King Childeric I at Tournai, Belgium. [11]

Around 1000 AD, cast bronze horseshoes with nail holes became common in Europe. A design with a scalloped outer rim and six nail holes was common. [4] According to Gordon Ward the scalloped edges were created by double punching the nail holes causing the edges to bulge. [12] The 13th and 14th centuries brought the widespread manufacturing of iron horseshoes. [13] By the time of the Crusades (1096–1270), horseshoes were widespread and frequently mentioned in various written sources. [7] In that period, due to the value of iron, horseshoes were even accepted in lieu of coin to pay taxes. [4]

By the 13th century, shoes were forged in large quantities and could be bought ready made. [4] Hot shoeing, the process of shaping a heated horseshoe immediately before placing it on the horse, became common in the 16th century. [13] From the need for horseshoes, the craft of blacksmithing became "one of the great staple crafts of medieval and modern times and contributed to the development of metallurgy." [11] A treatise titled "No Foot, No Horse" was published in England in 1751. [4]

In 1835, the first U.S. patent for a horseshoe manufacturing machine capable of making up to 60 horseshoes per hour was issued to Henry Burden. [13] In mid-19th-century Canada, marsh horseshoes kept horses from sinking into the soft intertidal mud during dike-building. In a common design, a metal horseshoe holds a flat wooden shoe in place. [14]

China

In China, iron horseshoes became common during the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), prior to which rattan and leather shoes were used to preserve animal hooves. Evidence of the preservation of horse hooves in China dates to the Warring States period (476–221 BC), during which Zhuangzi recommended shaving horse hooves to keep them in good shape. The Discourses on Salt and Iron in 81 BC mentions using leather shoes, but it is not clear if they were used for protecting horse hooves or to aid in mounting the horse. Remnants of iron horseshoes have been found in what is now northeast China, but the tombs date to the Goguryeo period in 414 AD. A mural in the Mogao Caves dated to 584 AD depicts a man caring for a horse's hoof, which some speculate might be depicting horseshoe nailing, but the mural is too eroded to tell clearly.

The earliest reference to iron horseshoes in China dates to 938 AD during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. A monk named Gao Juhui sent to the Western Regions writes that the people in Ganzhou (now Zhangye) taught him how to make "horse hoof muse", which had four holes in it that connected to four holes in the horse's hoof, and were thus put together. They also recommended using yak skin shoes for camel hooves. Iron horseshoes however did not become common for another three centuries. Zhao Rukuo writes in Zhu Fan Zhi , finished in 1225, that the horses of the Arabs and Persians used metal for horse shoes, implying that horses in China did not. After the establishment of the Yuan dynasty in 1271 AD, iron horseshoes became more common in northern China. When Thomas Blakiston travelled up the Yangtze, he noted that in Sichuan "cattle wore straw shoes to prevent their slipping on the wet ground" while in northern China, "horses and cattle are shod with iron shoes and nails." The majority of Chinese horseshoe discoveries have been in Jilin, Heilongjiang, Liaoning, Sichuan, and Tibet. [15]

Reasons for use

Environmental changes linked to domestication

Many changes brought about by the domestication of the horse, such as putting them in wetter climates and exercising them less, have led to horses' hooves hardening less and being more vulnerable to injury. In the wild, a horse may travel up to 50 miles (80 km) per day to obtain adequate forage. While horses in the wild cover large areas of terrain, they usually do so at relatively slow speeds, unless being chased by a predator. [4] They also tend to live in arid steppe climates. The consequence of slow but nonstop travel in a dry climate is that horses' feet are naturally worn to a small, smooth, even, and hard state. The continual stimulation of the sole of the foot keeps it thick and hard. However, in domestication, the manner in which horses are used is different. Domesticated horses are brought to colder and wetter areas than their ancestral habitat. These softer and heavier soils soften the hooves and make them prone to splitting, thus making hoof protection necessary. [4]

Physical stresses requiring horseshoes

Horseshoeing theories and debates

Domestic horses do not always require shoes. When possible, a "barefoot" hoof, at least for part of every year, is a healthy option for most horses. However, horseshoes have their place and can help prevent excess or abnormal hoof wear and injury to the foot. Many horses go without shoes year round, some using temporary protection such as hoof boots for short-term use. [19]

Process of shoeing

Shoeing, when performed correctly, causes no pain to the animal. Farriers trim [20] the insensitive part of the hoof, which is the same area into which they drive the nails. This is analogous to a manicure on a human fingernail, only on a much larger scale. [1]

Before beginning to shoe, the farrier removes the old shoe using pincers (shoe pullers) and trims the hoof wall to the desired length with nippers, a sharp pliers-like tool, and the sole and frog of the hoof with a hoof knife. Shoes do not allow the hoof to wear down as it naturally would in the wild, and it can then become too long. The coffin bone inside the hoof should line up straight with both bones in the pastern. If the excess hoof is not trimmed, the bones will become misaligned, which would place stress on the legs of the animal. [21]

Shoes are then measured to the foot and bent to the correct shape using a hammer, anvil, forge, and other modifications, such as taps for shoe studs, are added. Farriers may either cold shoe, in which they bend the metal shoe without heating it, or hot shoe, in which they place the metal in a forge before bending it. Hot shoeing can be more time-consuming, and requires the farrier to have access to a forge; however, it usually provides a better fit, as the mark made on the hoof from the hot shoe can show how even it lies. It also allows the farrier to make more modifications to the shoe, such as drawing toe- and quarter-clips. The farrier must take care not to hold the hot shoe against the hoof too long, as the heat can damage the hoof. [21]

Hot shoes are placed in water to cool them. The farrier then nails the shoes on by driving the nails into the hoof wall at the white line of the hoof. The nails are shaped in such a way that they bend outward as they are driven in, avoiding the sensitive inner part of the foot, so they emerge on the sides of the hoof. When the nail has been completely driven, the farrier cuts off the sharp points and uses a clincher (a form of tongs made especially for this purpose) or a clinching block with hammer to bend the rest of the nail so it is almost flush with the hoof wall. This prevents the nail from getting caught on anything, and also helps to hold the nail, and therefore the shoe, in place. [21]

The farrier then uses a rasp (large file), to smooth the edge where it meets the shoe and eliminate any sharp edges left from cutting off the nails. [21]

In culture

Superstition

A horseshoe on a door is regarded as a protective talisman in some cultures. Horseshoe lucky on door.jpg
A horseshoe on a door is regarded as a protective talisman in some cultures.

Horseshoes have long been considered lucky. They were originally made of iron, a material that was believed to ward off evil spirits, and traditionally were held in place with seven nails, seven being the luckiest number. [22] The superstition acquired a further Christian twist due to a legend surrounding the tenth-century saint Dunstan, who worked as a blacksmith before becoming Archbishop of Canterbury. The legend recounts that, one day, the Devil walked into Dunstan's shop and asked him to shoe his horse. Dunstan pretended not to recognize him, and agreed to the request; but rather than nailing the shoe to the horse's hoof, he nailed it to the Devil's own foot, causing him great pain. Dunstan eventually agreed to remove the shoe, but only after extracting a promise that the Devil would never enter a household with a horseshoe nailed to the door. [23]

Opinion is divided as to which way up the horseshoe ought to be nailed. Some say the ends should point up, so that the horseshoe catches the luck, and that a horseshoe with ends pointing down allows the good luck to be lost; others say the ends should point down, so that the luck is poured upon those entering the home. [22] Superstitious sailors believe that nailing a horseshoe to the mast will help their vessel avoid storms. [24] [25]

Heraldry

In heraldry, horseshoes most often occur as canting charges, such as in the arms of families with names like Farrier, Marshall, and Smith. A horseshoe (together with two hammers) also appears in the arms of Hammersmith and Fulham, a borough in London. [26]

Flag of Rutland Rutland County Flag.svg
Flag of Rutland

The flag of Rutland, England's smallest historic county, consists of a golden horseshoe laid over a field scattered with acorns. [27] This refers to an ancient tradition in which every noble visiting Oakham, Rutland's county town, presents a horseshoe to the Lord of the Manor, which is then nailed to the wall of Oakham Castle. Over the centuries, the Castle has amassed a vast collection of horseshoes, the oldest of which date from the 15th century. [28]

Monuments and structures

A massive golden horseshoe structure is erected over the shopping mall of the Tuuri village in Alavus, a town of Finland. It is one of the most famous monuments in the locality; however, it stands at number three in Reuters' list of world's ugliest buildings and monuments. [29]

Sport

The sport of horseshoes involves a horseshoe being thrown as close as possible to a rod in order to score points. As far as it is known, the sport is as old as horseshoes themselves. While traditional horseshoes can still be used, most organized versions of the game use specialized sport horseshoes, which do not fit on horses' hooves. [30]

See also

Related Research Articles

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nail (fastener)</span> Sharp object of hard metal used as a fastener

In woodworking and construction, a nail is a small object made of metal which is used as a fastener, as a peg to hang something, or sometimes as a decoration. Generally, nails have a sharp point on one end and a flattened head on the other, but headless nails are available. Nails are made in a great variety of forms for specialized purposes. The most common is a wire nail. Other types of nails include pins, tacks, brads, spikes, and cleats.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Blacksmith</span> Person who creates wrought iron or steel products by forging, hammering, bending, and cutting

A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut. Blacksmiths produce objects such as gates, grilles, railings, light fixtures, furniture, sculpture, tools, agricultural implements, decorative and religious items, cooking utensils, and weapons. There was a historical distinction between the heavy work of the blacksmith and the more delicate operations of a whitesmith, who usually worked in gold, silver, pewter, or the finishing steps of fine steel. The place where a blacksmith works is variously called a smithy, a forge, or a blacksmith's shop.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hoof</span> Tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, strengthened by a thick and horny keratin covering

The hoof is the tip of a toe of an ungulate mammal, which is covered and strengthened with a thick and horny keratin covering. Artiodactyls are even-toed ungulates, species whose feet have an even number of digits; the ruminants with two digits are the most numerous, e.g. giraffe, deer, bison, cattle, goat, pigs, and sheep. The feet of perissodactyl mammals have an odd number of toes, e.g. the horse, the rhinoceros, and the tapir. Although hooves are limb structures primarily found in placental mammals, hadrosaurs such as Edmontosaurus possessed hoofed forelimbs. The marsupial Chaeropus also had hooves.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Farrier</span> Specialist in equine hoof care

A farrier is a specialist in equine hoof care, including the trimming and balancing of horses' hooves and the placing of shoes on their hooves, if necessary. A farrier combines some blacksmith's skills with some veterinarian's skills to care for horses' feet. Traditionally an occupation for men, in a number of countries women have now become farriers.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Laminitis</span> Disease of the feet of hooved animals

Laminitis is a inflammation of laminae that affects the feet of ungulates and is found mostly in horses and cattle. Clinical signs include foot tenderness progressing to inability to walk, increased digital pulses, and increased temperature in the hooves. There is also swelling in foot in some cases.Severe cases with outwardly visible clinical signs are known by the colloquial term founder, and progression of the disease will lead to perforation of the coffin bone through the sole of the hoof or being unable to stand up, requiring euthanasia.

A pritchel is a type of punch used in forging, particularly in making nail holes in horseshoes. The horseshoe is heated and a hole is punched through 90 percent of the steel with a forepunch or drift punch. The pointed end of the tool should be kept sharp so that the burr is cut out smoothly. The punched hole is lined up over the pritchel hole and the pritchel is driven into the hole, knocking out the remaining metal at the bottom of the punched hole. The temperature of the pritchel should be always be below the red-hot stage as the tool itself will bend and lose the temper. When over-heated it is advised to cool it in water immediately.

Navicular syndrome, often called navicular disease, is a syndrome of lameness problems in horses. It most commonly describes an inflammation or degeneration of the navicular bone and its surrounding tissues, usually on the front feet. It can lead to significant and even disabling lameness.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Ox</span> Common bovine draft and riding animal

An ox, also known as a bullock, is a bovine, trained and used as a draft animal. Oxen are commonly castrated adult male cattle; castration inhibits testosterone and aggression, which makes the males docile and safer to work with. Cows or bulls may also be used in some areas.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horse management</span> Aspect of animal husbandry

There are many aspects to horse management. Horses, ponies, mules, donkeys and other domesticated equids require attention from humans for optimal health and long life.

Jaime Jackson is a former farrier, horse hoof care lecturer, author, and researcher of the wild, free roaming horses in the U.S. Great Basin. He is best known for the practice of natural hoof care first written about in The Natural Horse: Lessons from the Wild (1992). His later work "Paddock Paradise: A Guide to Natural Horse Boarding" became a foundation for the alternative boarding system also known as Track System. Jackson's work focuses around Four Pillars of Natural Horse Care.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Horse hoof</span> Hardened, weight bearing structure of a horses limbs

A horse hoof is the lower extremity of each leg of a horse, the part that makes contact with the ground and carries the weight of the animal. It is both hard and flexible. It is a complex structure surrounding the distal phalanx of the 3rd digit of each of the four limbs, which is covered by soft tissue and keratinised (cornified) matter.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hoof boot</span> Device designed to cover and protect a horses hoof

A hoof boot is a device made primarily of polyurethane and is designed to cover the hooves of a horse as an alternative to, and occasionally in addition to, horseshoes. Hoof boots can also be used as a protective device when the animal has a hoof injury that requires protection of the sole of the hoof, or to aid in the application of medication. There are many different designs, but all have the goal of protecting the hoof wall and sole of the horse's hoof from hard surfaces, rocks and other difficult terrain.

Equine podiatry is the study and management of the equine foot based on its anatomy and function.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Iron in folklore</span>

Iron has a long and varied tradition in the mythology and folklore of the world.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Nail prick</span> Shoeing injury in horses

Nail prick or quicking occurs in a horse if the sensitive hoof structures are penetrated by a horseshoe nail being driven through the hoof wall while shoeing. The nail creates a wound on the inside of the hoof wall.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Caulkin</span> Blunt projection on a horseshoe

A caulkin is a blunt projection on a horseshoe or oxshoe that is often forged, welded or brazed onto the shoe. The term may also refer to traction devices screwed into the bottom of a horseshoe, also commonly called shoe studs or screw-in calks. These are usually a blunt spiked cleat, usually placed at the sides of the shoe.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Natural hoof care</span>

Natural hoof care is the practice of keeping horses so that their hooves are worn down naturally, or trimmed to emulate natural wear, so they do not suffer overgrowth, splitting and other disorders. Horseshoes are not used, but domesticated horses may still require trimming, exercise and other measures to maintain a natural shape and degree of wear.

<span class="mw-page-title-main">Hipposandal</span> Horse hoof protector

The hipposandal is a device that protected the hoof of a horse. It was commonplace in the northwestern countries of the Roman Empire, and was a predecessor to the horseshoe.

Soring is the use of chemicals, pressure or devices to cause pain to the front feet and legs of horses when they touch the ground. This results in the horses picking up their front feet higher and faster than they would do naturally. Sometimes called "fixing", it is an abusive and prohibited practice, illegal in the U.S. under the Horse Protection Act of 1970 (HPA). It is closely associated with a unique high-stepping action of the front legs called "big lick" movement in show ring Tennessee Walking Horses. Under normal circumstances, "big lick" action is normally created by horseshoes that have added pads and weight, usually combined with additional weighted chains or rollers placed around the pasterns to create dramatic, high-stepping action of the horse's front legs, desired in the horse show ring. Practitioners of soring do so because they believe that the pain associated with this practice exaggerates the "big lick" to a greater degree and gives them a competitive edge over horses that are not treated in this manner. Other breeds that have a history of soring abuses include the Racking Horse and the Spotted Saddle Horse. Both criminal and civil penalties can be assessed against individuals who engage in soring.


Simon John Curtis is a farrier, author, lecturer and horse hoof-care expert with a PhD in Equine Physiology and Biomechanics (2017). He is a 4th generation farrier; his family have been farriers and blacksmiths in the Newmarket area for at least 150 years. In over 45 years working as a farrier, he has lectured and demonstrated in more than 30 countries including the USA, Australia, India, Russia, and Brazil.

References

  1. 1 2 3 4 Price, Steven D. (ed.) The Whole Horse Catalog: Revised and Updated New York:Fireside 1998 ISBN   0-684-83995-4, pp. 84–87.
  2. ↑ Evans, J. Warren, et al. The Horse. Second edition, New York: Freeman, 1990, ISBN   0-7167-1811-1, pp. 731–739.
  3. ↑ Smith, Lindi (18 January 2019). "The Legend Behind Horseshoes For Good Luck Involves The Devil Himself". Wide Open Country. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cohen, Rachel. "The History of Horseshoes". Equisearch.com. Archived from the original on 6 March 2012. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
  5. ↑ "Iron hipposandal". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 20 July 2017.
  6. 1 2 3 Robert E. Krebs, Groundbreaking Scientific Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Ancient World, ISBN   0313313423, (Greenword/ABC-CLIO), pp. 27–28.
  7. 1 2 "Who Invented Horseshoeing?". Archived from the original on 8 February 1998.[ dubious – discuss ] Archived 8 February 1998.
  8. ↑ Bates, W. N. (1902). "Etruscan Horseshoes from Corneto". American Journal of Archaeology . 6 (4): 398–403. doi:10.2307/496665. JSTOR   496665. S2CID   191408516 . Retrieved 1 November 2015.
  9. 1 2 Rodney Carlisle, Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries (2 August 2004), ISBN   0471244104, John Wiley, p. 117.
  10. ↑ Clark, Bracy (1831). An essay on the knowledge of the ancients respecting the art of shoeing the horse, and of the probable period of the commencement of this art. p. 33.
  11. 1 2 "Horseshoe." Encyclopædia Britannica. 15th edn. Vol. 20. 2005. 651–51. Print.
  12. ↑ Ward, Gordon (1939). On dating old horse-shoes. Hull: The Museum.
  13. 1 2 3 Bellis, Mary (16 June 2010). "Horseshoes, Nails, Saddles, and Riding". TheInventors.org. Retrieved 19 November 2011.
  14. ↑ Gray, Charlotte, The Museum Called Canada: 25 Rooms of Wonder, Random House, 2004.
  15. ↑ "~ K K | x «إߦZ x ~ b y -- -- H".
  16. ↑ Ensminger, M. E. Horses and Horsemanship: Animal Agriculture Series. Sixth edition. Interstate Publishers, 1990, ISBN   0-8134-2883-1, pp. 367–371.
  17. ↑ Ensminger, M. E. Horses & Tack: A Complete One Volume Reference on Horses and Their Care. Rev. edn Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1991, ISBN   0-395-54413-0, pp. 267–269.
  18. ↑ "Race Horses Require Shoes of Special Design and Weight". Popular Mechanics. 65 (4). April 1936. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  19. ↑ McBane, Susan, A Natural Approach to Horse Management, London: Methuen, 1992, ISBN   0-413-62370-X, pp. 57–60.
  20. ↑ "Mesa Horse Farrier Services | Arizona Horseshoeing | Farrier Near Me™". www.farriernearme.com. Archived from the original on 10 April 2019. Retrieved 10 April 2019.
  21. 1 2 3 4 Evans, J. Warren, et al. The Horse. Second edition, New York: Freeman, 1990, ISBN   0-7167-1811-1, pp. 742–747.
  22. 1 2 "Superstition Bash: Horseshoes". Committee for Skeptical Inquiry. 13 January 2004.
  23. ↑ "Who was St Dunstan?". St Dunstan Episcopal Church. Archived from the original on 4 April 2015. Retrieved 12 August 2015.
  24. ↑ Eyers, Jonathan (2011). Don't Shoot the Albatross!: Nautical Myths and Superstitions. London: A&C Black, ISBN   978-1-4081-3131-2.
  25. ↑ "Luck and Horseshoes". Indepthinfo.com. Archived from the original on 29 October 2019. Retrieved 19 December 2011.
  26. ↑ "Hammersmith and Fulham, London Borough of". Civic Heraldry of England and Wales.
  27. ↑ "Flag of Rutland". Flag Institute. Retrieved 12 May 2018.
  28. ↑ Clough, Timothy (1987). The Horseshoes of Oakham Castle. Leicestershire Museums.
  29. ↑ "10 top ugly buildings and monument". Reuters. 2005.
  30. ↑ National Horseshoe Pitchers Association (1 January 2021) [16 July 2006]. "The Official Rules/Regulations Guidelines Specifications For The Sport Of Horseshoe Pitching" (PDF). Horseshoepitching.com. pp. 36–37. Retrieved 23 October 2022.

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